Engineering Professional Practice (CE 752) — Semester VIII

CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF ENGINEERING PRACTICES

IOE, Tribhuvan University • 3 Hours • 4 Marks

1.1 MAN AND SOCIETY 2081 2080 2079 2078 2077 2076 2075 2074 2073 2072 2071 2070 2069

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS:

  1. Define the term society and community. [1] (2080 Chaitra, Q1)
  2. Explain the relationship between human and society. [2] (2079 Chaitra, Q1a)
  3. Define society. Illustrate elements of society. Describe the relationship between man and society. [Part of 10] (2072 Magh, Q1)
  4. Why is society necessary to a man, or to an engineer? Explain. [4] (2076 Bhadra, Q1)
  5. Why are men and society so important to engineering profession? [4] (2073 Magh, Q1a)
  6. Define Society. Explain briefly about the types of society in the sociological point of view. [4] (2079 Shrawan, Q1a)
  7. Explain criteria of society. [4] (2074 Magh, Q1)
  8. Define society. What are the fundamental social needs to be addressed for the survival of every type of society? [4] (2071 Magh, Q1a)
  9. What are the major activities to be governed by the society for its survival? [4] (2073 Bhadra, Q1a)
  10. Write down in brief the Characteristics Features of Society. What are the elements of Community. [5] (2074 Bhadra, Q1a)
  11. What are the differences between community and society? Briefly describe the theories of social change. [2+3] (2069 Bhadra, Q1a)
  12. Define Society and Social Change. [2] (2077 Chaitra, Q1)
  13. What is social change? What are the factors causing social change? [Part of 8] (2072 Ashwin, Q1)
  14. List down and explain the various theories of social change with example. [1+3] (2081 Shrawan, Q1)
  15. Explain the conflict theory of social change and its relevance in Nepal. [1+3] (2078 Kartik, Q1a)
  16. Explain what type of Social change theory is suitable for your society. [4] (2075 Bhadra, Q1)
  17. Write short notes on: Society and development. [2] (2073 Bhadra, Q5e)
  18. Explain how individual freedom balances societal goals. [4] (2073 Bhadra, Q1b)
  19. Why the conflict exists between an individual’s freedom and the social goal? [5] (2070 Magh, Q1a)
  20. Explain in brief the role of engineers in Social Change. [3] (2080 Chaitra, Q1)
  21. Explain why society is important for engineers? What are the key roles that an engineers plays in the society? [4] (2078 Chaitra, Q1a)
  22. Why is society necessary for engineers? What are the roles that an engineer can play in the society? [5] (2070 Bhadra, Q1a)
SOCIETY Plurality of Individuals Mutual Interaction Cooperation & Conflict Social Control Dynamic Nature Culture & Norms Abstract Nature Interdependence
Figure 1.1: Key Characteristics of Society — A concept map

What is Society? 2080 2079 2077

Society is derived from the Latin word socius meaning companionship, friendship, or comrade. In sociology, society refers to a large group of individuals united by certain relations, modes of behavior, and a web of social relationships. It is not a mere collection of people but a complex pattern of norms and interactions that arise among them. Society is abstract — we cannot “see” it, only observe the relationships and patterns within it.

Definitions by Scholars

ScholarDefinition
MacIver“The system of usages and procedures, of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behaviors and liberties. It is the web of social relationship.”
Morris Ginsberg“A collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior which mark them off from others.”
J.F. Cuber“A group of individuals who have lived together long enough to become organized and consider themselves distinct from others.”
Cooley“A complex of forms or processes each of which is living and growing by interaction with the others, the whole being so unified that what takes place in one part affects all the rest.”

Criteria of Society 2074

  1. Population: Can be small or big.
  2. Common Territory: People occupy a shared geographic area.
  3. Government/Political Authority: Common political authority.
  4. Common Culture: Shared culture and a sense of relationship, membership, and commitment.

Characteristics (Elements) of Society 207420722079

  1. Plurality of Individuals: Composed of people of different ages, sexes, economic statuses, and cultural backgrounds.
  2. Web of Social Relationships / Mutual Interaction and Awareness: The core element. Defined roles (father, teacher, engineer) and reciprocal interactions.
  3. Likeness and Difference: Likeness (blood relation, nationality) binds people. Difference enables division of labor and mutual dependence.
  4. Interdependence: No individual is self-sufficient. Members depend on each other.
  5. Cooperation and Conflict: Cooperation holds society together. Conflict drives change. Both coexist.
  6. Permanence and Stability: Society outlives individual members.
  7. Dynamic Nature: Changeability is inherent. No society remains static.
  8. Abstract Nature: Society is intangible — it is the web of relationships, not the people themselves.
  9. Social Control: Society controls behavior through customs, traditions, laws, and institutions.
  10. Culture: Every society has its own unique traditions, values, and attitudes.
SOLVED: Characteristics of Society + Elements of Community [2074 Bhadra, 5 marks]

Q: Write down in brief the Characteristic Features of Society. What are the elements of Community.

Ans: List the 10 Characteristics of Society above. Then list the 8 Elements of Community: Group of People, Definite Locality, We-feeling, Cultural Similarity, Permanency, Naturality, No Legal Status, Particular Name.

What is Community? 20802074

A community is a social group whose members reside in a specific locality, share government, and have a common cultural and historical heritage. Unlike society (abstract), a community is concrete and location-specific.

MacIver: “Whenever the members of any group, small or large, live together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life, we call that group community.”

Elements of Community

  1. Group of People
  2. Definite Locality/Territory
  3. Community Sentiment (We-feeling)
  4. Cultural Similarity (Likeness)
  5. Permanency
  6. Naturality (grows spontaneously, not created by law)
  7. No Legal Status
  8. Particular Name
SOCIETY (Abstract) Web of Relationships Heterogeneous Wider Scope No fixed territory COMMUNITY (Concrete) Definite Locality Homogeneous Smaller Scope "We-feeling" vs
Figure 1.2: Society vs Community — Key differences at a glance

Difference Between Society and Community 20802069

BasisSocietyCommunity
DefinitionWeb of social relationshipsGroup of people in a specific locality
GeographyNo definite geographic areaDefinite locality essential
NatureAbstract (network of relationships)Concrete (visible group in a place)
SentimentNot essential“We-feeling” is indispensable
ScopeWider, more comprehensiveSmaller, more specific
CharacterHeterogeneousHomogeneous
FormationCame priorCame after society

Theories of Origin of Society

  1. Divine Origin Theory: Society was created by God. Rooted in religious philosophies (e.g., Sanatan Hindu philosophy).
  2. Social Contract Theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau): Humans contractually formed society for security and order.
  3. Evolutionary Theory (Spencer, Darwin): Society evolved gradually from simple to complex. Most scientifically accepted.
Tribal Pastoral Horticultural Agricultural Industrial Post-Industrial
Figure 1.3: Evolution of Society Types

Types of Society 2079

TypeTimeframeMain Feature
TribalMillions of years agoHunting and gathering. 60–100 people. Family is main unit.
Pastoral10,000–12,000 yrs agoDomesticated herd animals. Larger populations. Slavery common.
Horticultural13,000–7,000 BCDomestication of plants. Slash and burn. Division of labor.
Agricultural6,000 years agoPlow invented. First cities. Irrigation. Monarchy.
Industrial280 years agoMachine production. Urbanization. Factory system.
Post-IndustrialPresentInformation and service economy. Science, education, democracy.

Social Institutions

Five basic institutions found in all known societies:

  1. The Family: Contributes new members, teaches expected behaviors.
  2. Religion: Motivates members to comply with responsibilities.
  3. Economy: Produces and distributes goods and services.
  4. Education: Transmits skills needed for productive membership.
  5. The State: Protects members from threats. Establishes legal codes.
Parsons' 6 Needs 1. Organizing 2. Protection 3. Replacement 4. Transmission 5. Motivation 6. Conflict Resolution
Figure 1.4: Parsons’ Six Fundamental Social Needs

Fundamental Social Needs (Talcott Parsons) 20732071

  1. Organizing Activities: Obtain basic goods and services (food, clothing, shelter).
  2. Protection: From external threats (invasion, disasters) and internal threats (crime, epidemics).
  3. Replacement: Replace members lost by death or emigration.
  4. Transmission of Knowledge: Teach new members rights, obligations, and expected behaviors.
  5. Motivation: Motivate members to fulfill responsibilities.
  6. Conflict Resolution: Develop mechanisms for solving conflicts.
SOLVED: Social needs for survival [2073 Bhadra, 4 marks]

Q: What are the major activities to be governed by the society for its survival?

Ans: List and elaborate 6 Fundamental Social Needs (Parsons): Organizing Activities, Protection, Replacement, Transmission of Knowledge, Motivation, Conflict Resolution.

Social Change 20772072

Social change refers to alterations in social structure, cultural patterns, and social behaviors over time. Society is never static.

MacIver: “Social change in the human relationship.”
M.P. Jenison: “Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people.”

Major Factors Causing Social Change (8 Factors)

  1. Technological Factors: Most powerful agent. Inventions alter how we live and work.
  2. Cultural Factors: New ideas, ideologies, values.
  3. Physical/Environmental Factors: Earthquakes, floods, climate change.
  4. Demographic Factors: Population size, birth/death rates, migration.
  5. Economic Factors: Industrialization, capitalism.
  6. Social Conflict: Class, religion, gender, caste divisions.
  7. Social Movements: Organized efforts to change norms.
  8. Human Ideas and Opinions: New ideas modify social structures.
A. Evolutionary (Comte, Spencer) Simple Complex Civilized (Linear) B. Functionalist (Parsons) Change → Adjust → Equilibrium C. Conflict (Karl Marx) Haves vs Have-nots → Class Struggle Primitive → Slavery → Feudal → Capitalist → Communist Nepal: Maoist insurgency, monarchy→republic D. Cyclical (Spengler, Toynbee) Birth → Growth → Decline → Death Repeats Which theory fits Nepal? Conflict Theory (most suitable) — Jana Andolan, Maoist insurgency, caste struggles Functionalist partly applies (urbanization → nuclear families)
Figure 1.5: Four Theories of Social Change — comparison with Nepal context

Theories of Social Change 2081207820752069

A. Evolutionary Theory (Comte, Spencer)

Society moves linearly from simple to complex. Example: Hunting/Gathering → Industrial → Information Society.

B. Functionalist Theory (Parsons)

Society is a system of interconnected parts. Change in one part forces adjustment in others to restore equilibrium.

C. Conflict Theory (Karl Marx) 20782075

Change is driven by conflict between “Haves” (Bourgeoisie) and “Have-nots” (Proletariat). Economic sequence: Primitive communism → Slavery → Feudal → Capitalist → Communist.

Relevance to Nepal: Maoist insurgency (1996–2006), 240-year monarchy abolished via political struggle (not gradual evolution), Dalit/Janajati/Madhesi movements for inclusion.

D. Cyclical Theory (Spengler, Toynbee)

Civilizations rise and fall in cycles: birth → growth → decline → death. Example: Roman Empire, dynastic cycles in China/Nepal.

SOLVED: Conflict theory + Nepal relevance [2078 Kartik, 4 marks]

Ans: Conflict Theory (Marx): Haves vs Have-nots → Class Struggle. Sequence: Primitive → Slavery → Feudal → Capitalist → Communist.

  • Maoist Insurgency (1996–2006): Rural poor fought ruling elite for equal rights.
  • Monarchy to Republic (2008): 240-year monarchy abolished through struggle.
  • Caste/Ethnic Tensions: Movements for Dalit, Janajati, Madhesi inclusion.
SOLVED: Social change + role of technology [2072 Ashwin, 8 marks]

Ans: Define social change (MacIver). List 8 factors. Role of Technology:

  • Mass Production → factory system, urbanization
  • Communication Revolution → “Global Village”
  • Transportation → connected distant places
  • Automation → productivity + job displacement
  • Agriculture → rural-to-urban shift
  • Healthcare → increased life expectancy
  • Family System → nuclear families, women in workforce

Individual Freedom vs. Societal Goals 20732070

Why conflict exists:

  1. Self-interest vs. Collective Good
  2. Resource Scarcity
  3. Diverse Values
  4. Professional Context: Cost-cutting vs. safety standards

How it is balanced:

  1. Social Control: Laws, ethics, norms limit absolute freedom.
  2. Role of Ethics: Prioritize public welfare over personal gain.
  3. Synergy: Innovation creates technology that helps society.
“Your liberty to swing your fist ends just where my nose begins.”
ENGINEER 1. Problem Solver 2. Innovator 3. Visionary/Planner 4. Safety Guardian 5. Agent of Economic Growth
Figure 1.6: Five Key Roles of Engineers in Society

Role of Engineers in Society 2078207020732080

Why is society important for engineers?

  • Society provides the problems engineers solve.
  • Engineers build for people — understanding norms/culture is needed.
  • Projects have massive social impacts (displacement, pollution).

Key roles of an engineer:

  1. Problem Solver: Technical solutions for societal problems.
  2. Innovator: Introduce new technologies.
  3. Visionary and Planner: Visualize future infrastructure.
  4. Guardian of Safety: Ensure public safety.
  5. Agent of Economic Growth: Build economy-driving infrastructure.

Role in developmental activities:

  1. Creating vision
  2. Preparing mission
  3. Execution
  4. Monitor and evaluate
  5. Train new engineers

Changes brought by engineers:

  • Mass production of goods through machines
  • Automation
  • Faster means of transportation
  • Mass communication
  • Labor-saving devices
  • Faster pace of life
  • Commercializing recreation
  • High degree of specialization
SOLVED: Role of engineers in social change [2080 Chaitra, 4 marks]

Ans: 1) Technology Introduction (internet changed communication), 2) Infrastructure Development (roads connect remote areas), 3) Innovation (earthquake-resistant construction after 2015), 4) Knowledge Transfer (train local communities), 5) Environmental Impact (cleaner technologies: solar, hydropower).

Eastern vs. Western Values of Society

Eastern ValuesWestern Values
Social harmonyAchievement and success
Sacrifice for group welfareActivity and work
Truth and integrityMoral orientation
Respect for elders, ancestorsEfficiency and practicality
Maintaining culture/traditionProgress
Helping people in need (Paropakar)Material comfort
Purity in thought and actsEquality and Freedom
Religious/spiritual achievementIndividualistic orientation
CollectivismUse of technology
Holistic worldviewScience and rationality

Key differences: Individualism vs. Collectivism, Fragmentation vs. Holistic, Conflict vs. Harmony, Idealism vs. Pragmatism.

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1.2 TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY 2079 2077 2073 2072 2071 2069

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS:

  1. Describe about the impact of technology into the society. [3] (2079 Chaitra)
  2. Discuss on the impact of technology into the society. [4] (2071 Bhadra, Q1a)
  3. What are the impacts of technology and its changes on society in this 21st century? [5] (2069 Bhadra, Q1b)
  4. How does digital technology help our society in economic development? [2] (2077 Chaitra, Q1)
  5. Describe the role of technology in social change. [Part of 8] (2072 Ashwin, Q1)
  6. Write short notes on: Technology and society. [4] (2079 Shrawan, Q5b)
  7. Write short notes on: Technology and society. [2] (2073 Magh, Q5a)
  8. Illustrate the impacts of computer on Nepalese society. [Part of 4] (2073 Bhadra, Q1a)
  9. Write short notes on: Society and Information Communication Technology (ICT). [5] (2079 Chaitra, Q5a)
  10. Write short notes on: Impact of computers in society. [2] (2072 Ashwin, Q5a)
  11. Write short notes on: Computer crimes. [2.5] (2072 Magh, Q5a)

What is Technology?

Technology is the proper knowledge and use of tools and techniques that facilitates the transfer of inputs into outputs efficiently. It is the practical application of scientific knowledge to create tools and systems that solve human problems. The relationship between technology and society is reciprocal — they shape each other.

Technological change is defined as the modification and alteration of current tools and techniques to bring improvement in society and improve productivity.

TECHNOLOGY Tools, machines, internet SOCIETY People, culture, norms shapes demands & drives
Figure 1.7: Reciprocal Relationship between Technology and Society

Impact of Technology on Society 207920712069

  1. Mass production of goods through machines
  2. Automation of processes
  3. Faster transportation (steam, cars, planes)
  4. Mass communication (telegraph → internet, “Global Village”)
  5. Labor-saving devices
  6. Faster pace of life
  7. Commercializing recreation
  8. High specialization
  9. Healthcare advancement: Vaccines, surgery, imaging

Impact on Social Systems

AreaImpact
FamilyNuclear families, women in workforce, mechanical lifestyle
ReligionCaste rigidity vanished, religion becomes secondary
Rural LifeUrban migration, comfortable life, changed patterns
Urban LifeSlums, crime, transportation problems, land shortage

ICT and Society 20792077

  • Economic Development: E-commerce (Daraz, eSewa), banking automation.
  • Employment: New jobs (programmers, analysts) + job displacement.
  • Social Interaction: Global village, but reduced face-to-face skills.
  • Education: Distance learning, global knowledge access.
  • Privacy: Cybercrimes, data privacy loss.
COMPUTER 1. Social Apps 2. Employment 3. Competition 4. Individuality 5. Quality of Life 6. Privacy
Figure 1.8: Six Impacts of Computers on Society

Impact of Computers on Society 20732072

  1. Social Applications: Medical diagnosis, government planning, law enforcement (CCTV).
  2. Employment & Productivity: New jobs but also automation-caused losses.
  3. Competition: Large firms gain advantage.
  4. Individuality: Reduced human relationships.
  5. Quality of Life: Better goods/services at lower cost.
  6. Privacy: Easy data collection → privacy is lost.
SOLVED: Computers on Nepalese society [2073 Bhadra, 4 marks]
  1. Government: E-governance (Nagarik App, online passport, land digitization).
  2. Banking: Digital banking (eSewa, Khalti) reached rural areas.
  3. Education: Online learning, Zoom classes (post-COVID).
  4. Employment: IT sector (developers, BPO) created new jobs.
  5. Connection: Video calls, social media for diaspora.
  6. Privacy: Rising cybercrimes, online fraud.

Computer Crime 2072

Computer crime is the use of computers for criminal activities.

Types:

  • Hacking, unauthorized access/modification
  • Software piracy, unauthorized information release
  • Denial of Service (DoS)
  • Identity theft, bank fraud
  • Computer viruses, data destruction

Protection:

  • Anti-spam legislation, antivirus software
  • Cyber law, Nepal: Electronic Transaction Act 2061, Rules 2064

Greatest Technological Achievements of the 20th Century

Electrification, Automobile, Airplane, Safe Water, Electronics, Radio/Television, Agricultural Mechanization, Computers, Telephone, Air Conditioning, Interstate Highways, Space Exploration, Internet, Imaging Technologies, Household Appliances, Health Technologies, Petroleum/Gas Technologies, Laser/Fiber Optics, Nuclear Technology, High Performance Materials.

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1.3 HISTORY OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE IN EASTERN SOCIETY 2082

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS:

  1. Significant contributions of eastern societies to engineering. [4] (2082 Shrawan)

Engineering in the East is characterized by collectivism, religious values, and community-driven projects. Four oldest civilizations: Egypt, China, India (Indus Valley), Mesopotamia.

CHINA • Great Wall (220 BC) • Grand Canal (510 AD) • 4 Inventions: Compass, Gunpowder, Paper, Printing • Seismoscope (132 AD) INDIA / NEPAL • Indus Valley (2500–1700 BC) • Grid cities, drainage, metallurgy • Pagoda architecture • Araniko: White Stupa, Beijing (13th C) MESOPOTAMIA • First irrigation (Tigris-Euphrates) • Ziggurats (mud-brick pyramids) • Cuneiform writing • Babylonian Gugallu (inspectors) PERSIA / KOREA / JAPAN • Ctesiphon vault (400 AD, 77ft span) • Bridges (Shapur-I, 300 AD) • Block printing (Korea, 704 AD) • First anesthesia surgery (Japan, 1805)
Figure 1.9: Major Engineering Achievements of Eastern Civilizations

Major Engineering Achievements (Timeline) 2082

PeriodAchievementLocation
5000 BCCivilization at Yanshao. Pottery & stone tools.China
4000 BCCities planned in grid pattern with intersecting streets.China
3500–3000 BCTowns appear. Trade-based production.Mesopotamia
3300–3200 BCDivision of labor among merchants and metal workers.Egypt/Sumeria
3100 BCEgyptian Civilization along Nile River.Egypt
2700–2500 BCPyramids of Egypt.Egypt
2500–1700 BCIndus Valley: grid cities, sanitation, metallurgy.India
515 BCPersian building method with stone introduced into India (Darius conquered Punjab).Persia/India
220 BCGreat Wall of China (General Meng Tien, Emperor Shih Huang).China
132 ADSeismoscope (Chang Heng).China
300 ADBridges built by Iranians (Shapur-I).Persia
400 ADCtesiphon vault (77 ft wide, 112 ft high, unreinforced brick).Iraq
510 ADGrand Canal connecting Yangtze & Yellow River.China
704 AD“Dharani Sutra” — oldest printed book.Korea
805 ADForerunners of guns invented (“fire lance”).China
1040 ADFirst known gunpowder formula (Tseng Kung-Liang).China
1045 ADPi-Sheng: movable type printing (centuries before Gutenberg).China
1250 ADTrue guns with gunpowder chamber. Reached Europe within a century.China
1805 ADFirst surgery under general anesthesia (Habaoka Seishu).Japan

Ancient China (The Innovators)

  • Great Wall (220 BC): Massive defensive fortification. Advanced logistics, surveying, and masonry.
  • Grand Canal (510 AD): Longest canal in the world, connecting Yellow River and Yangtze. Lifeline for grain transport.
  • Four Great Inventions: Compass (navigation), Gunpowder (warfare), Papermaking (knowledge transmission), Movable Type Printing (before Gutenberg).
  • Other: Silk, noodles, porcelain, paper money (from 3000 BC).

Ancient India and Nepal

  • Indus Valley (2500–1700 BC): First known grid city system, advanced drainage/sanitation, flush toilets, public baths (The Great Bath), copper and bronze metallurgy.
  • Vedic / Ancient Nepal: Pagoda style architecture, Vaastu engineering (Nalanda, Takshashila).
  • Araniko (13th C): Master architect from Nepal who built White Stupa in Beijing, showcasing Nepali bronze and stone craftsmanship.

Mesopotamia (Cradle of Civilization)

  • First large-scale irrigation systems (canals, dikes) between Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
  • Ziggurats: Massive stepped pyramids of mud bricks (e.g., Ziggurat of Ur).
  • Cuneiform writing on clay tablets for construction and trade records.
  • Babylonian Gugallu (irrigation inspectors).

Ancient Persia (Iran)

  • Many bridges from the time of Shapur-I (300 AD).
  • Sassanid palace at Ctesiphon (400 AD) with the widest single span vault of unreinforced brickwork.
  • Stone building methods introduced into India (515 BC, when Darius conquered Punjab).
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1.4 HISTORY OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE IN WESTERN SOCIETY 2079

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS:

  1. From the History of engineering profession, what lessons the freshly graduated Engineers would learn. [5] (2079 Jestha, Q1)
2700 BC Pyramids 447 BC Parthenon 312 BC Appian Way 1698 Steam Engine 1761 1st Civil Engr (Smeaton) 1903 First Flight (Wright Bros) 1950+ Computers 1990+ Internet, GPS Ancient Industrial Rev Modern
Figure 1.10: Western Engineering History — Key milestones timeline

Ancient Egypt

Pyramids of Giza (2700–2500 BC): Structural engineering feats using lever, inclined plane. Oldest of the Seven Wonders.

Ancient Greece

  • Parthenon (447–438 BC): Columns and beams.
  • Archimedes: Screw pump, laws of buoyancy.

Ancient Rome (The Great Builders)

  • Roads: 50,000 miles. Appian Way (312 BC).
  • Aqueducts: Gravity-fed water transport (Pont du Gard).
  • Concrete: Pozzolana volcanic ash concrete → Pantheon dome.
ROADS 50,000 miles Appian Way 312 BC "All roads lead to Rome" AQUEDUCTS Gravity-fed water Pont du Gard Arches over valleys CONCRETE Pozzolana (volcanic ash) Enabled Pantheon dome Still standing 2000+ yrs
Figure 1.11: Three Great Achievements of Roman Engineering

Industrial Revolution Timeline

PeriodKey Developments
1547–1752Benjamin Franklin theorized lightning as electricity.
1548–1620Simon Stevin discovered triangle of forces (Netherlands).
1564–1642Beginning of stress analysis in beams (Galileo era).
1698Thomas Savery: first steam engine.
1700–1800Industrial Revolution. Watt patents steam engine. Society of Engineers, London. First cast-iron building in England.
1761John Smeaton: first proclaimed Civil Engineer.
1800William Gilbert, first Electrical Engineer (De Magnete). First engineering school in France.
1800–1825Machine automation (France). First railroad locomotive. Chemical symbols. Single wire telegraph.
1825–1875Reinforced concrete first used. First synthetic plastic. Bessemer steel process. First oil well (Pennsylvania). Typewriter perfected.
1863William Gibbs (Yale): first PhD in Engineering.
1875–1900Telephone (Bell), Light bulb & phonograph (Edison), Gasoline engine (Daimler), Automobile (Benz).
1900–1925Wright Brothers’ first flight (1903). Ford diesel tractors. First commercial flight (Paris–London).
1925–1950Television (John Logie Baird). VW Beetle. First atomic bomb. Transistor invented.
1950–1975Computers introduced. Sputnik I (USSR). Telstar satellite. Moon landing (USA).
1975–1990Concorde supersonic flight. Columbia space shuttle. First artificial heart.
1990–PresentMars robots. Channel Tunnel. GPS technology. Internet.

The First Engineers

The first engineers were irrigators, architects, and military engineers, often the same people. As agricultural surpluses grew, specialists emerged. Wealth accumulated and projects became too large for a single craftsman, giving rise to a new class: technicians and engineers who could negotiate with rulers, plan details, and direct workmen.

Spread of Engineering Knowledge

  • Inventions spread along trade routes; stopped by natural barriers (deserts, oceans).
  • Large interconnected populations meant faster invention rates.
  • “Hydraulic State”: Large irrigation projects necessitated centralized government (Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, Hwang-Ho valleys).
SOLVED: Lessons for fresh graduates from history [2079 Jestha, 5 marks]
  1. Build for Durability: Pyramids (4500+ yrs), Roman roads survived centuries.
  2. Appropriate Technology: Use local materials/culture; what works abroad may not suit Nepal.
  3. Teamwork: Mega-projects required massive community participation.
  4. Environmental Responsibility: Civilizations that mismanaged environment collapsed.
  5. Continuous Learning: From stone tools to computers — never stop learning.
  6. Ethics & Safety: Engineering failures caused loss of life when safety was ignored.
  7. Nepal Heritage: Preserve Araniko’s, Gehendra Shumsher’s legacy while adopting modern tech.
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1.5 ENGINEERING PRACTICES IN NEPAL 2078 2071

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS:

  1. Discuss about the engineering practice in Nepal. [4] (2071 Bhadra, Q1b)
  2. In your opinion, what types of technology/ies Nepal should focus on, to develop the rural infrastructure rapidly. Be specific to your area of study/program of your study. [4] (2078 Kartik, Q1b)
Vedic Vaastu engineering (Nalanda, Takshashila) Licchavi Temples (Changunarayan), water spouts (Hiti) 13th C Araniko → White Stupa, Beijing 1850 First iron bridge (Bagmati River) Rana Gehendra Shumsher (rifles, cannons, steam engines) 1911 Pharping Hydropower (Asia's 2nd) 1965 IOE established (German cooperation) 1996 Master's program started 1998 Computer engineering program
Figure 1.12: Nepal Engineering History — Vertical Timeline

Historical Timeline 2071

Period/YearDevelopment
VedicVaastu engineering (Nalanda, Takshashila).
Kirat/LicchaviTemples (Changunarayan), Hiti water spouts, palaces using brick and timber.
13th CenturyAraniko: White Stupa in Beijing.
Malla PeriodTemples, buildings, handicrafts.
1850First iron bridge over Bagmati River.
1888–1895Water supply system in Kathmandu.
Rana PeriodGehendra Shumsher (1871–1906): rifles, cannons, steam engines. Sent 5 people to Japan for engineering education.
1911Pharping Hydropower (Asia’s second).
1942Technical school established.
1959Overseer Institute established.
1965–1972IOE established with German cooperation.
1996Master’s program started.
1998Computer engineering program started.

Key Figures

  • Araniko (13th C): Nepali architect — White Stupa, Beijing.
  • Gehendra Shumsher (1871–1906): “First Scientist of Nepal.”
  • Shanti Malla: First lady engineer of Nepal.
  • Kul Ratna Tuladhar: First Dean of IOE.
NEPAL RURAL TECH 1. MICRO-HYDRO Remote electrification 2. TRAIL BRIDGES Mountain connectivity 3. GREEN ROADS Labor-intensive, eco 4. AGRI TECH Terrace farming, drip 5. EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT
Figure 1.13: Technology Focus for Nepal’s Rural Development

Technology for Nepal’s Rural Development 2078

  1. Hydropower & Micro-Hydro: Abundant water for remote electrification.
  2. Trail Bridges & Ropeways: Mountain connectivity where roads are costly.
  3. Green Roads: Labor-intensive, environmentally friendly, minimizes landslides.
  4. Agricultural Technology: Terrace farming mechanization, drip/sprinkler irrigation.
  5. Earthquake-Resistant Technology: Seismic bands, retrofitting after 2015 earthquake.
SOLVED: Engineering practice in Nepal [2071 Bhadra, 4 marks]

Ans: Historical timeline: Vedic → Licchavi (Changunarayan) → Araniko (13th C) → Malla → Gehendra Shumsher → Pharping 1911 → IOE 1965. Key figures: Araniko, Gehendra Shumsher, Shanti Malla. Current: hydropower, road infrastructure, earthquake-resistant construction.

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QUICK REFERENCE: KEY FACTS

KEY MEMORIZE 10 Society Traits 6 Parsons Needs 4 Social Change Theories 8 Change Factors 6 Eastern Achievements Nepal Milestones
Figure 1.14: What to memorize — Quick reference map
FactDetail
Society (Latin)Socius = companionship
4 Criteria of SocietyPopulation, Territory, Government, Culture
6 Social Needs (Parsons)Organizing, Protection, Replacement, Transmission, Motivation, Conflict Resolution
5 Social InstitutionsFamily, Religion, Economy, Education, State
6 Types of SocietyTribal → Pastoral → Horticultural → Agricultural → Industrial → Post-Industrial
4 Theories of Social ChangeEvolutionary, Functionalist, Conflict (Marx), Cyclical
Conflict Theory (Marx)Primitive communism → Slavery → Feudal → Capitalist → Proletariat
China’s 4 Great InventionsCompass, Gunpowder, Papermaking, Printing
First civil engineerJohn Smeaton (1761)
First steam engineThomas Savery (1698)
First flightWright Brothers (1903)
Pharping Hydro1911, Asia’s 2nd hydropower
Gehendra Shumsher1871–1906, "First Scientist of Nepal"
Araniko13th C, White Stupa Beijing
IOE1965–72, German cooperation
SeismoscopeChang Heng, 132 AD, China
Grand Canal510 AD, China, longest canal in world
Movable type printingPi-Sheng, 1045 AD, China
Indus Valley2500–1700 BC, first grid city
Pyramids2700–2500 BC, Egypt
Appian Way312 BC, Rome
Great Wall220 BC, China

PAST QUESTION FREQUENCY SUMMARY

0 2 4 6 8 7+ Society def 6+ Social change 6+ Tech impact 4+ Engineer role 3+ Computer 3+ Types/Community 2 Others Times Asked
Figure 1.15: Past Question Frequency by Topic
TopicTimes AskedMarks
Define society / characteristics / elements / criteria7+4–5
Social change (definition + factors + theories)6+4–8
Technology and society / impact of technology6+2–4
Role of engineers in society4+4–5
Impact of computers on society3+2–4
Types of society / Community3+2–5
Individual freedom vs. societal goals24–5
Eastern society contributions24
Engineering practice in Nepal24
Lessons from history / Computer crimes / Rural tech1 each2–5

Top 10 Most Important Topics

  1. Definition and characteristics of society (asked almost every year)
  2. Social change: definition, factors, and theories
  3. Technology and society / impact
  4. Role of engineers in society
  5. Impact of computers on society
  6. Types of society
  7. Community definition and elements
  8. Theories of social change (Conflict Theory + Nepal)
  9. Eastern society contributions
  10. Engineering practices in Nepal

Common Mistakes to Avoid

  • Confusing society (abstract) with community (concrete, location-specific).
  • Mixing up Evolutionary (linear) with Cyclical (rise and fall).
  • Not providing dates/names for Eastern/Western achievements.
  • Writing theories without proponents (Marx, Parsons, Spencer, Toynbee).
  • Ignoring Nepal context when specifically asked.
Exam Tip: This chapter carries only 4 marks with one question. Expect either a definition-based question (society/social change) or an application question (impact of technology, role of engineers). Common pattern: “Define X. Explain Y.” For 4 marks, write 4–6 points with brief elaboration.

My Mnemonics