Chapter 6 – Climate Change (Revision)

6.1 Definition, Causes & Impacts of Climate Change 208120802079207820762075207420732072207120702069

Definitions

Weather: Day-to-day atmospheric conditions (temp, rain, wind)
Climate: Average weather over 30+ years
Climate Change: Long-term shift in global/regional climate patterns due to natural and anthropogenic factors
Climate Variability: Short-term fluctuations around the mean (El Niño, monsoon variation)

Causes (Factors Contributing to Climate Change)

GHG Emissions: CO₂ (fossil fuel), CH₄ (livestock, rice paddies), N₂O (fertilizers), CFCs
Deforestation: Reduced CO₂ absorption; releases stored carbon
Industrialization: Factories, power plants burning fossil fuels
Urbanization: Heat islands, increased energy demand
Agricultural Practices: Methane from livestock; nitrous oxide from fertilizers
Waste Decomposition: Landfill methane emissions

Climate Change Gases 2076

Gas	Source	GWP (CO₂=1)
CO₂	Fossil fuels, deforestation	1
CH₄	Livestock, rice, landfills	28
N₂O	Fertilizers, industry	265
CFCs/HFCs	Refrigerants, aerosols	1,000–10,000

Impacts

Temperature Rise: +1.1°C since pre-industrial; heatwaves more frequent
Sea Level Rise: ~3.6 mm/yr → coastal flooding, island submergence
Extreme Events: Intense floods, droughts, cyclones, forest fires
Biodiversity: Coral bleaching, species migration, extinction
Agriculture: Crop failure, pest spread, water scarcity
Health: Heat stress, tropical diseases spreading northward
Economy: Damage costs, climate refugees, infrastructure loss

Nepal-Specific Impacts 208020742073

GLOF Risk: 21+ potentially dangerous glacial lakes (Tsho Rolpa, Imja)
Temperature: Rising at 0.06°C/yr (faster in mountains than plains)
Monsoon: Erratic — intense rain events; longer dry spells
Snow-line Recession: Himalayas losing ~0.5 m/yr snow line
Agriculture: Rice, maize yield declining; new pest zones
Water: Dry-season river flow decreasing

“Think Globally, Act Locally” 2081

Global problem requires local action — plant trees, save energy, reduce waste
Community forestry, biogas, ICS — Nepal’s local contributions to global effort

📝 Past Questions — §6.1 (15 Qs) ★★★★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Define weather, climate change, climate variability. Justify “think globally act locally”.	4+4	2081
2	Define climate change & climate variability. Challenges faced by our country.	2+2	2080
3	Define climate change with example of extreme events.	4	2078
4	What is climate change?	Part of 8	2072
5	Factors contributing to the climate change?	Part of 8	2075
6	Describe causes and Impacts of climate change.	Part of 8	2074
7	List out climate change gases. Explain effect of climate change.	4+4	2076
8	Write short notes on: Causes and impacts of climate change.	4	2078 Kartik
9	Factors contributing to climate change? Impacts in case of Nepal.	8	2074
10	What do you mean by climate change? Major symptoms in Nepal.	Part of 8	2073
11	Factors contributing to global warming? Sources, impacts & mitigation of global warming.	8	2072
12	Climate change? Major symptoms of climate changes in Nepal.	1+4	2070
13	What is climate change? Impacts and potential mitigation measures.	1+4	2070
14	Climate change? Impacts and mitigation measures Nepal can adopt.	5	2071
15	Climate change? Impacts and potential mitigation measures.	Part of 8	2069

🔗 Climate change — SAME answer pool: Ch3 §3.7 Climate as Threat → §6.2 Mitigation Measures → §6.3 International Efforts → Ch4 §4.7 Global Env. Issues →

6.2 Mitigation Measures of Climate Change 2078207320722069

Mitigation (Reducing Causes)

Renewable Energy: Solar, wind, hydro replacing fossil fuels
Energy Efficiency: LED lighting, green buildings, efficient appliances
Afforestation: Planting trees to absorb CO₂
Carbon Pricing: Carbon tax, cap-and-trade systems
Clean Transport: Electric vehicles, mass transit, cycling infrastructure
Industrial Reform: Cleaner production, carbon capture & storage (CCS)
Waste Management: Reduce, reuse, recycle; landfill methane capture

Adaptation (Coping with Impacts) 2073

Early Warning Systems: Flood forecasting, GLOF monitoring
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Raised roads, flood-resistant buildings
Drought-Resistant Crops: Agricultural adaptation
Water Harvesting: Rainwater collection for dry seasons
Insurance: Crop insurance, disaster insurance

Nepal’s Perspective

Contributes < 0.1% of global GHGs but highly vulnerable
Community forestry (22,000+ groups managing 2.2M ha)
Biogas & ICS programs reducing biomass burning
LAPA (Local Adaptation Plans of Action) in 100+ municipalities

📝 Past Questions — §6.2 (4 Qs) ★★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	What would be the appropriate mitigation measures to reduce the effect of climate change?	Part of 8	2072
2	Discuss about climate change and adaptation measure from Nepalese perspective.	8	2073
3	Write short notes on: Mitigation measures to climate change.	4	2078 Kartik
4	Describe its impacts and potential mitigation measures.	2	2069

🔗 Mitigation (local vs global) shared with: Ch5 §5.8 Air/Water Pollution Mitigation → §6.3 International Efforts →

6.3 International Efforts to Mitigate Climate Change 208020792078207720762075207320702069

Year	Agreement/Event	Key Feature
1972	Stockholm Conference	First global environmental conference; created UNEP
1987	Montreal Protocol	Phase-out of CFCs (ozone layer protection)
1992	Rio Earth Summit (UNCED)	UNFCCC established; Agenda 21; CBD
1997	Kyoto Protocol	Binding GHG reduction targets for developed countries; CDM, JI, ET mechanisms
2009	Copenhagen Accord	Limit warming to 2°C (non-binding)
2012	Doha Amendment	Extended Kyoto to 2020
2015	Paris Agreement	Limit warming to 1.5–2°C; NDCs from all countries; $100B/yr Green Climate Fund
2021	Glasgow Climate Pact (COP26)	Phase-down of coal; methane pledge; loss & damage discussions

UNFCCC Mechanisms

CDM (Clean Development Mechanism): Developed countries invest in clean projects in developing countries and earn carbon credits
JI (Joint Implementation): Developed-to-developed country projects
Emission Trading (ET): Buy/sell carbon credits between countries

Nepal’s Engagement 20802079

NDC commitment: net-zero by 2045 (forestry sector)
NAPA (2010): prioritized adaptation in agriculture, water, forestry
REDD+ program: payment for forest conservation
Climate Change Policy 2019; Environment Protection Act

📝 Past Questions — §6.3 (11 Qs) ★★★★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	National and international efforts to tackle climate change.	4	2080
2	Key international efforts to combat climate change? How Nepal can be streamlined?	8	2079 Chaitra
3	Elaborate the International efforts to combat climate change effects.	5	2079 Jestha
4	Key international efforts to mitigate climate change impacts.	4	2078
5	International efforts towards mitigation measures undertaken globally.	Part of 8	2075
6	Write down international efforts.	Part of 4	2076
7	International efforts for mitigation and adaptation of climate induced problems.	Part of 8	2073
8	International efforts made to address climate change.	3	2070
9	National and international efforts for mitigation and adaptation.	3	2070
10	Write short notes on: Climate Change and International Efforts.	4	2077
11	International efforts made to address this problem.	Part of 8	2069

🔗 International efforts connect to: §6.1 Causes & Impacts (always combined) → §6.2 Mitigation Measures →

6.4 Bio-Gas & Organic Farming 20792077

Biogas

Process: Anaerobic digestion of cattle dung, human waste, crop residue → CH₄ + CO₂ (60:40)
Output: Clean gas for cooking + slurry as organic fertilizer
Nepal: 400,000+ household plants (BSP program); mainly Terai and Mid-hills
Benefits: Replaces firewood (saves forests), reduces indoor smoke (reduces ARI), produces fertilizer, reduces GHGs

Suitability in Terai 2077

Warm climate (optimal at 30–40°C for digestion)
Large cattle population (dung readily available)
Flat terrain (easy construction)
Slurry directly used in adjacent farmland

Organic Farming

No synthetic fertilizers/pesticides; use compost, green manure, biogas slurry
Reduces soil degradation & chemical runoff
Sequesters carbon in soil (improves soil organic matter)
Nepal: growing organic tea, coffee, spice exports (premium pricing)

How They Help Minimize Climate Change 2079

Replace fossil fuels with renewable biogas → reduce CO₂
Replace firewood → reduce deforestation → maintain CO₂ sinks
Organic farming reduces N₂O from synthetic fertilizers
Soil carbon sequestration through composting
Methane capture in biogas plants (instead of uncontrolled release from open dung piles)

📝 Past Questions — §6.4 (2 Qs) ★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	How Bio-gas and organic farming help minimize climate change.	8	2079
2	Write short notes on: Bio-gas and its suitability in Terai Region of Nepal.	4	2077

🔗 Biogas & organic farming shared with: Ch5 §5.9 Indoor Air Pollution (biogas solution) → Ch1 §1.5 Appropriate Tech (biogas example) → §6.5 Deforestation (biogas reduces) →

6.5 Deforestation and Its Consequences 2077

Causes in Nepal

Firewood collection (80% rural energy)
Agricultural expansion (slash-and-burn)
Infrastructure development (roads, settlements)
Illegal logging and encroachment
Forest fires (dry season)

Consequences

Climate: Reduced CO₂ absorption; releases stored carbon
Soil Erosion: Loss of root binding → landslides (critical in hills)
Flooding: Reduced water retention capacity → flash floods
Biodiversity: Habitat destruction → species extinction
Water Cycle: Reduced transpiration → less local rainfall
Livelihood: Loss of forest products (timber, NTFPs, medicines)

📝 Past Questions — §6.5 (1 Q) ★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Write short notes on: Deforestation and its consequences.	4	2077

🔗 Deforestation ↔ National Parks are two sides of same topic: §6.6 National Parks & Forestation → Ch4 §4.8 Nepal Env. Issues →

6.6 Importance of National Parks, Conservation Areas & Forestation 207820742071

National Parks & Conservation Areas of Nepal

Name	Region	Key Feature
Chitwan NP	Terai	One-horned rhino, Bengal tiger (UNESCO)
Sagarmatha NP	Khumbu	Mt Everest, snow leopard (UNESCO)
Langtang NP	Central Hills	Red panda, Himalayan tahr
Annapurna CA	Western	Largest CA; community-managed tourism
Bardia NP	Mid-Western Terai	Tiger, wild elephant, Gangetic dolphin

Importance for GHG Reduction 2071

Carbon Sink: Forests absorb CO₂ — Nepal’s forests store ~1.04 billion tonnes C
Biodiversity Conservation: Genetic resource preservation
Watershed Protection: Regulate water flow, prevent floods & erosion
Ecotourism: Revenue for conservation & local communities
Buffer Zones: Transition between park and settlement; 50% revenue shared with locals

Forestation Strategies

Community Forestry: 22,000+ user groups managing 2.2M ha (Nepal’s success story)
Leasehold Forestry: Degraded land given to poor households for restoration
REDD+: Payment for keeping forests intact (carbon credits)
Plantation Programs: Government tree planting campaigns

📝 Past Questions — §6.6 (3 Qs) ★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Importance of national parks, conservation areas and forestation as strategy to reduce GHG emission.	6	2071
2	How can we protect our National Parks and Conservation Areas.	Part of 8	2074
3	Write short notes on: National Park and its importance.	4	2078 Kartik

🔗 National parks ↔ Deforestation — complementary answers: §6.5 Deforestation Consequences → §6.2 Mitigation (forestation as strategy) →

Quick-Revision Summary

Section	Topic	Qs	Freq.
6.1	Climate Change — Definition, Causes, Impacts	15	★★★★★
6.2	Mitigation & Adaptation Measures	4	★★★
6.3	International Efforts	11	★★★★★
6.4	Biogas & Organic Farming	2	★★
6.5	Deforestation Consequences	1	★
6.6	National Parks & Forestation	3	★★

6.1 Definition, Causes & Impacts 20812080207820762075207420732072207120702069

Weather vs Climate

Weather	Climate
State of atmosphere at any instant	Long-term pattern of weather in a particular area
Short term, changes rapidly	Seasonal change over decades
Difficult to predict long-term	Predictable based on historical data

Key Definitions

Climate Change: Long-term alteration of temperature and weather patterns caused by natural factors (volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, orbital changes) + artificial factors (GHG emissions from human activities)
Climate Variability: Natural short-term fluctuations (year-to-year, decade-to-decade) like El Niño/La Niña — NOT the same as climate change

Extreme Events

Droughts: Higher evapotranspiration → desertification
Floods: Extreme precipitation in low-lying areas
Hurricanes/Cyclones: Increased intensity from warmer oceans
GLOFs: Glacial retreat in Himalayas threatens catastrophic flooding
Coastal Flooding: Sea level rose ~8 inches last century (3.2 mm/yr)

Causes — Natural

Volcanic Eruptions: Release GHGs, ashes, dust
Wind & Ocean Currents: Conveyor belts transporting heat
Orbital Changes: Tilt 21.5°–24.5° (41,000 yr); orbit shape (100,000 yr)
Forest Fires: Destroy CO₂ consumers
Meteor Impacts: Debris blocks sunlight

Causes — Artificial (Human)

Deforestation (reduced CO₂ absorption)
Burning fossil fuels (factories, power plants)
Excessive automobiles
Suburbanization / urban sprawl

Greenhouse Gases

Gas	Conc. (ppm)	GH Efficiency (CO₂=1)	GH Contribution (%)	Sources
CO₂	351	1	57	Fossil fuels, deforestation
CFCs	0.00225	15,000	25	Aerosols, refrigerants
CH₄	1.675	25	12	Wetlands, rice, livestock
N₂O	0.31	230	6	Fertilizer, deforestation

8 Impacts of Climate Change

Temperature Rise: +1.1°C since 19th century; may warm 4°C within 83 years
Sea Level Rise: ~8 inches last century (3.2 mm/yr)
Glacier Melting: Greenland lost 150–250 km³/yr (2002–2006); Antarctica ~152 km³ (2002–2005)
Arctic Ice Loss: Extent and thickness decreased significantly
Extreme Events: Droughts, intense rainfall, floods, hurricanes
Ocean Acidification: Surface ocean acidity +30% since industrial revolution; 2 billion tons CO₂/yr absorbed
Species Migration & Extinction: Tropical diseases migrate with warming
Health Risks: Vector-borne diseases, heat-related illness

Impacts in Nepal 208020742073

Glacial Retreat & GLOFs: Himalayan glaciers retreating; 1.054 billion tons carbon in forests
Erratic Rainfall: Changed monsoon patterns → floods, landslides, drought
Agriculture Impact: Changed growing seasons, crop production decline
Biodiversity Loss: Species migration, habitat disruption
Water Scarcity: Reduced snowfall & glacier melt threatening rivers
Health Risks: Malaria, dengue spreading to higher elevations
Deforestation: Forest cover: 57% (1947) → 40.36% (2015)
NAPA: Launched 2010; historic Everest cabinet meeting (Dec 4, 2009)

“Think Globally, Act Locally” 2081

Local afforestation & community forestry
Clean energy: biogas, solar, improved cooking stoves
Waste segregation, composting, reduce open burning
Cycling, public transport, EVs
Sustainable/organic farming → reduce N₂O & CH₄
Watershed management & rainwater harvesting
Nepal’s global emissions ~0.027%, but local actions build national resilience

6.2 Mitigation Measures 2078207320722069

Definition: Actions for reducing GHG sources or enhancing GHG sinks to stabilize atmospheric concentrations.

A. Carbon Capture

Tree Plantation: Single tree absorbs 48 lb CO₂/year
CCS: Capture (pre/post-combustion, oxy-fuel) → Transport → Storage (geological, ocean sequestration)

B. Energy Sources

Shift to biodiesel, ethanol, natural gas
Solar, wind, hydrogen fuel cells
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

Adaptation — Nepal Perspective 2073

NAPA: Launched 2010; priority adaptation across sectors
Community Forestry: 29% (1994) → 40.36% (2015); 1.054B tons carbon
Biogas: Introduced 1974/75; Gobar Gas Company 1977
Organic Farming: Reduces N₂O; natural pest control
Hydropower: Nepal’s major renewable source
Protected Areas: 10 national parks, 6 conservation areas, 3 wildlife reserves
GLOF Early Warning Systems
Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Drought-resistant crops, crop diversification

Key Mitigation Technologies by Sector

Sector	Key Technologies
Energy	Hydro, solar, wind, geothermal, CCS, nuclear
Transport	Fuel-efficient vehicles, hybrids, biofuels
Industry	CCS, heat & power recovery
Building	Efficient lighting/appliances, solar design
Agriculture	Manure management (CH₄), improved fertilizer (N₂O)

6.3 International Efforts 208020792078207720762075207320702069

1. UNFCCC (1992)

Goal: Stabilize GHG concentrations to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
Adopted 1992, in force March 21, 1994; 196 countries
Works through annual COP (Conference of Parties)
Provides funding, insurance, technology transfer

2. Kyoto Protocol (1997)

Negotiated Dec 1997, Kyoto, Japan; in force Feb 16, 2005
Committed developed countries to reduce GHG by 5.2% by 2012 (vs 1990)
Targets 6 GHGs: CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, PFCs, HFCs, SF₆

Three Mechanisms:

ETS — Emissions Trading System (Assigned Amount Units)
CDM — Clean Development Mechanism (invest in mitigation projects in developing countries)
JI — Joint Implementation (emission reduction between developed & transition countries)

3. Cancun Adaptation Framework (COP 16, 2010)

Adaptation given same priority as mitigation
Country-driven, gender-sensitive, participatory
Guided by best science & indigenous knowledge
Implement NAPAs; build resilience in vulnerable countries

4. Green Climate Fund

Established COP 16 (2010), operational COP 17 (Durban, 2011)
Supports developing countries via CDM, adaptation programs
Includes Adaptation Fund, GEF Trust Fund, LDCF, SCCF

Nepal’s Alignment 20802079

NAPA implementation (launched 2010)
CDM investments in hydropower, biogas, forestry
REDD+ leverage: 40.36% forest, 1.054B tons carbon
GCF access for adaptation infrastructure
Scale up biogas (since 1974/75), solar, micro-hydro
10 national parks + 6 conservation areas as carbon sinks

6.4 Bio-Gas & Organic Farming 20792077

Biogas

Composition: CH₄ 50–70%, CO₂ 30–40%, H₂ 5–10%
Properties: Sp. gravity 0.55; ignition 650°C; 6 kWh/m³; digestion 20–35°C; retention 40–100 days
Uses: Electricity/heat, vehicle fuel (pure), organic fertilizer

How Biogas Minimizes Climate Change

Reduces deforestation (replaces fuelwood)
Burns cleaner; captures CH₄ (25× more potent than CO₂)
Decentralized energy reduces fossil fuel dependence
Reduces indoor air pollution
Self-sustaining through fuel & fertilizer savings

Biogas in Terai 2077

Warm tropical climate ideal (20–35°C year-round)
High livestock concentration → abundant manure
Agricultural heartland → fertilizer by-product useful
Flat terrain → easy construction
Reduces Chure range deforestation pressure

Organic Farming 2079

Uses natural nutrient sources (manure, compost, crop residue) instead of synthetic agrochemicals
Nitrogen via legumes & biological fixation; pest control by rotations & natural predators
Climate benefits: Reduces N₂O (GH efficiency 230× CO₂); improves soil carbon sequestration; no chemical pollution; nutritious food

6.5 Deforestation & Consequences 2077

Key Facts

Present forest: 30% of world’s land (~3.9B hectares)
Loss: 18.7 million acres/year (~27 football fields/min)
2nd largest anthropogenic CO₂ source (after fossil fuels)
1.5 billion tons CO₂ released annually; 15% of all GHG emissions (WWF)
At current rate: no rainforest in ~100 years

8 Causes

Agriculture (major cause)
Logging & fuelwood (2.6B people use biomass)
Overgrazing (20% livestock rise 1985–1998)
Fire (19.8M ha/yr affected)
Mining
Urbanization & infrastructure
Illegal timber (Nepal-India, Nepal-China borders)
Tourism, political misuse, natural calamities

Consequences

Climate Change: ~300B tons carbon in trees (40× annual fossil fuel GHG)
Biodiversity Loss: 80% of species in tropical rainforests
Water Depletion, Soil Erosion, Landslides
Social: Lost ecological services; tribal displacement
Ocean Acidification from higher atmospheric CO₂

Nepal Deforestation Data

Year	Forest Cover (%)
1947	57
1966	45
1978–79	38
1994	29
2015	40.36

Highest rate: 1947–1980 at 2.7% p.a.; recovery since 1994 due to community forestry.

Mitigation

Increase & improve protected area management
Sustainable management; promote substitutes
Participatory forest management & rights
Enforce laws (Paraguay’s 2004 Zero Deforestation Law → 85% reduction)
Bonn Challenge: 150M ha by 2020; 350M ha by 2030

6.6 National Parks, Conservation Areas & Forestation 207820742071

Nepal’s Protected Areas

12 National Parks, 1 Wildlife Reserve, 6 Conservation Areas, 1 Hunting Reserve
~23.39% of land protected (34,419 sq km)

Importance as GHG Reduction Strategy

Carbon Sinks: 1.054B tons carbon; 1 tree = 48 lb CO₂/yr; globally 300B tons in trees
Biodiversity Protection: 80% of species in tropical forests
Water Catchment: Regulate water cycles, prevent floods
Soil Conservation: Prevent erosion & landslides
Climate Regulation: Affect wind, water vapor, solar absorption

Community Forestry Success

Recovered forest cover: 29% (1994) → 40.36% (2015)
Increases carbon capture & sequestration
Balances O₂/CO₂ cycle; improves biodiversity & groundwater

How to Protect 2074

Enforce conservation laws; stricter anti-poaching regulations
Community participation & buffer zone management
Sustainable ecotourism benefiting locals
Technology: drones, camera traps for anti-poaching
Environmental education in surrounding communities
Access Green Climate Fund, REDD+ international support
Ongoing biodiversity research & monitoring

Past Exam Questions (36 Total)

6.1 Definition, Causes & Impacts (15 Qs) ★★★★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Define weather, climate change, and climate variability. Justify “think globally act locally” w.r.t. global warming.	4+4	2081 Chaitra
2	Define climate change & climate variability. List out challenges of climate changes faced by our country.	2+2	2080 Chaitra
3	Define climate change with suitable example of extreme events.	4	2078 Chaitra
4	What is climate change?	Part of 8	2072 Magh
5	What are the factors contributing to the climate change?	Part of 8	2075 Bhadra
6	Describe causes and Impacts of climate change.	Part of 8	2074 Bhadra
7	List out the climate change gases. Explain the effect of climate change.	4+Part of 4	2076 Bhadra
8	Write short notes on: Causes and impacts of climate change.	4	2078 Kartik
9	What are the factors contributing to climate change? Discuss impacts of climate change in case of Nepal.	8	2074 Magh
10	What do you mean by climate change? Write major symptoms of climate changes in Nepal.	Part of 8	2073 Magh
11	What are the factors contributing to global warming? Outline sources, impacts and mitigation measures.	8	2072 Ashwin
12	What do you mean by climate change? Write major symptoms of climate changes in Nepal.	1+4	2070 Magh
13	What is climate change? Describe its impacts and potential mitigation measures.	1+4	2070 Bhadra
14	What is climate change? Write down its probable impacts and mitigation measures Nepal can adopt.	5	2071 Bhadra
15	What is climate change? Describe its impacts and potential mitigation measures.	Part of 8	2069 Bhadra

🔗 Cross-ref: Q10 & Q12 are identical. Q13 & Q15 are identical. Q11 also covers §6.2 (mitigation). “Climate change as threat” = same answer as Ch3 §3.7 (3 Qs in 2079). Global warming factors overlap with Ch4 §4.7 (global env. issues).

6.2 Mitigation Measures (4 Qs) ★★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	What would be the appropriate mitigation measures to reduce the effect of climate change?	Part of 8	2072 Magh
2	Discuss about climate change and adaptation measure from Nepalese perspective.	8	2073 Bhadra
3	Write short notes on: Mitigation measures to climate change.	4	2078 Kartik
4	Describe its impacts and potential mitigation measures.	2	2069 Bhadra

🔗 Cross-ref: Many §6.1 questions also ask for mitigation (Q11, Q13, Q14, Q15). Mitigation measures overlap with Ch5 §5.8 (air/water pollution mitigation) — renewable energy, cleaner fuels, afforestation are common to both. Ch6 = MACRO, Ch5 = LOCAL.

6.3 International Efforts (11 Qs) ★★★★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Discuss national and international efforts to tackle climate change.	4	2080 Chaitra
2	Key international efforts to combat climate change effects? How Nepal can be streamlined to it?	8	2079 Chaitra
3	Elaborate International efforts to combat climate change effects.	5	2079 Jestha
4	Describe key international efforts to mitigate climate change impacts.	4	2078 Chaitra
5	Explain briefly international efforts towards mitigation measures undertaken globally.	Part of 8	2075 Bhadra
6	Write down international efforts.	Part of 4	2076 Bhadra
7	State some international efforts for mitigation and adaptation of climate change induced problems.	Part of 8	2073 Magh
8	Describe international efforts to address climate change.	3	2070 Bhadra
9	State some national and international efforts for mitigation and adaption of climate induced problems.	3	2070 Magh
10	Write short notes on: Climate Change and International Efforts.	4	2077 Chaitra
11	Describe international efforts made to address this problem.	Part of 8	2069 Bhadra

🔗 Cross-ref: Asked almost EVERY year (2069–2080). Q1, Q7, Q9 also ask for NATIONAL efforts — combine with §6.2 Nepal adaptation. Nepal’s env. protection efforts also in Ch5 §5.10.

6.4 Bio-Gas & Organic Farming (2 Qs) ★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Discuss on, how Bio-gas and organic farming help minimize climate change.	8	2079 Shrawan
2	Write short notes on: Bio-gas and its suitability in Terai Region of Nepal.	4	2077 Chaitra

🔗 Cross-ref: Biogas also used as solution for indoor air pollution in Ch5 §5.9. Same biogas content, different framing: Ch5 = health/pollution, Ch6 = GHG reduction.

6.5 Deforestation & Consequences (1 Q) ★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Write short notes on: Deforestation and its consequences.	4	2077 Chaitra

🔗 Cross-ref: Deforestation as env. issue also in Ch4 §4.8 (Nepal env. issues). National parks/forestation as solution → §6.6. Two sides of the same coin.

6.6 National Parks, Conservation Areas & Forestation (3 Qs) ★★

#	Question	Marks	Year
1	Describe importance of national parks, conservation areas and forestation programs in Nepal as GHG reduction strategy.	6	2071 Magh
2	How can we protect our National Parks and Conservation Areas?	Part of 8	2074 Bhadra
3	Write short notes on: National Park and its importance.	4	2078 Kartik

🔗 Cross-ref: Q1 links to §6.2 (mitigation) and §6.5 (deforestation). Conservation also in Ch4 §4.3 (conservation of environment).

Quick-Revision Summary

Section	Topic	Qs	Freq.
6.1	Definition, Causes & Impacts (GHG table, Nepal)	15	★★★★★
6.2	Mitigation (CCS, renewables, Nepal adaptation)	4	★★★
6.3	International Efforts (UNFCCC, Kyoto, Cancun, GCF)	11	★★★★★
6.4	Bio-Gas & Organic Farming	2	★★
6.5	Deforestation & Consequences	1	★
6.6	National Parks & Forestation	3	★★

Key Points to Remember

Climate change = long-term; Climate variability = short-term natural fluctuations
GHG contribution: CO₂ 57%, CFCs 25%, CH₄ 12%, N₂O 6%
Kyoto mechanisms: ETS (trading), CDM (developing countries), JI (joint implementation)
Nepal: 1.054B tons carbon in forests; 40.36% forest cover; NAPA 2010
Biogas: CH₄ 50–70%; introduced Nepal 1974/75; 400,000+ plants
Deforestation = 2nd largest anthropogenic CO₂ source; 15% of GHG emissions