Professional and Social Engineering (ENCE 355) — Year III / Part II

CHAPTER 1: TECHNOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY

IOE, Tribhuvan University • 10 Hours • 12 Marks
ENCE 355 is a new syllabus (2082/2025) with no board papers of its own yet. The Past Exam Questions in the boxes below are mapped from the equivalent Technology, Environment & Society (TES) board questions, since the topics are shared. Year tags show the original exam sitting.

1.1 EARLY CIVILIZATION AND ENGINEERING PRACTICES 2080 2079 2077 2073 2072 2071 2070 2069

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS (mapped from TES):

  1. State the different ages of human development. [3] (2070 Magh, Q2)
  2. Explain the role played by Renaissance period in the development of science and technology. [3] (2077 Chaitra, Q3a)
  3. Describe important features of Renaissance Period. [4] (2071 Magh, Q4)
  4. Define industrial revolution. [2] (2079 Shrawan, Q3)
  5. Describe briefly the impact of early part of industrial revolution. [3] (2070 Bhadra, Q1)
  6. Define industrial revolution. Describe the environmental consequences of industrial revolution. [1+3] (2080 Chaitra, Q4a)
  7. Describe the major changes the industrial revolution brought to human civilization. [8] (2073 Magh, Q4)
  8. What is “Agricultural Age”, “Industrial Age” and “Information Age”? Explain. [4] (2070 Bhadra, Q1)
  9. Define industrial revolution, industrial society and information society. [Part of 8] (2069 Bhadra, Q1)

Human civilization is the advanced stage of social and cultural development marked by organized society, government, writing, art and — above all — technology. Every leap in civilization has been driven by a leap in engineering: the ability to shape tools, materials and energy to serve human needs. In this sense, technology is the foundation of civilization.

The Ages of Human Development

Historians divide the growth of civilization into broad ages defined by the dominant material and technology of the time.

Stone Age 2.5M–3500 BC tools, fire, farming Bronze Age 3500–1100 BC writing, cities Iron Age 1100 BC–500 AD iron, philosophy Middle Age 500–1450 AD compass, mills Modern World 1450 AD → telescope, print Each age is named after the dominant material/technology that reshaped society
Figure 1.1: Timeline of the Ages of Human Civilization
AgePeriodKey Engineering / Technology
Stone Age2.5M–3500 BCStone tools, control of fire, beginning of agriculture; nomadic → settled life.
Bronze Age3500–1100 BCFirst Mesopotamian civilization, writing (Sumerians), navigation, temples and tombs.
Iron Age1100 BC–500 ADIron technology, Greek philosophy, the birth of systematic science.
Middle Age500–1450 ADCompass, windmills, the Silk Road, first universities.
Modern World1450–1660 ADTelescope, microscope, printing press; Columbus reaches America (1492).

The Renaissance (“Rebirth”, 1300s–1600s)

The Renaissance began in Italy and revived the classical spirit of observation and experimentation. It bridged the medieval world and modern science.

  • Science: Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model; Galileo pioneered experimental physics and the telescope.
  • Printing press (Gutenberg, ~1440): democratized knowledge and accelerated the spread of ideas.
  • Leonardo da Vinci: conceptual designs of the helicopter, tank and parachute — the union of art and engineering.
  • Philosophy: Humanism (Petrarch) placed human reason at the centre of enquiry.
Significance: The Renaissance laid the intellectual groundwork for both the Scientific Revolution and the Industrial Revolution that followed.

The Industrial Revolution (~1660–1815)

The Industrial Revolution is the transition from hand production to machine manufacturing, beginning in Britain. It transformed how goods were made, how people lived and how society was organised.

Industrial Revolution
The period of rapid change (18th–19th century) in which manual, hand-based production methods were replaced by powered machinery and the factory system, driven by steam power, mechanized textiles, and improved iron-making.

Major changes brought to human civilization

  • Technology: steam power, spinning jenny (1764), power loom (1785), coke-based iron-making, machine tools.
  • Society: population growth (Europe 100M in 1700 → 400M by 1900), rapid urbanization, rise of the factory and the working class.
  • Labour: child labour (two-thirds of cotton-mill workers in 1788 Britain were children) and a lowered status of women.
  • Economy: shift from land/labour to capital and machinery as the source of wealth.

Environmental consequences

Air, water and soil pollution; large-scale deforestation; depletion of coal and mineral resources; and the onset of global warming from fossil-fuel CO2 emissions — the environmental price of mechanization.

Nepal context: Nepal industrialized late. Its rich hand-craft tradition (carpets, pashmina, embroidery) was undercut by cheap mass-produced imports, making local artisans hard-pressed to compete.

1.2 CULTURAL AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY 2081 2078 2077 2076 2075 2073 2072 2071 2070 2069

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS (mapped from TES):

  1. Define technology and its impact on societies. [Part of 8] (2071 Bhadra, Q1)
  2. Discuss the impact of technology on society. [Part of 8] (2072 Magh, Q1)
  3. Write the positive as well as negative impact of technology on society. [4] (2070 Bhadra, Q1)
  4. Describe how technology helps create opportunity while transforming a society. [6] (2077 Chaitra, Q1)
  5. Explain how technology provides a shift in employment. [8] (2073 Bhadra, Q5)
  6. How does technology unmask old social problems? Justify with suitable examples. [8] (2076 Bhadra, Q1)
  7. How can technology control the price of basic commodities? Explain. [8] (2075 Bhadra, Q5)
  8. Justify: technology is irreversible. [4] (2078 Kartik, Q1)
  9. Define Technology, Environment and Society. Justify the statement “Technology is Irreversible” with suitable examples. [4+4] (2081 Chaitra, Q1)
  10. What do you understand by information society? [8] (2072 Magh, Q2)
Technology
The application of scientific knowledge, tools, techniques and processes to solve problems and satisfy human needs. It is cumulative, self-reinforcing and shapes — and is shaped by — culture and society.

Positive and Negative Social Impacts

POSITIVE • Faster, cheaper communication • Better healthcare & life expectancy • Accessible education • Higher productivity • Improved transportation • New industries & jobs NEGATIVE • Social isolation & addiction • Loss of privacy • Health threats (sedentary, radiation) • E-waste & pollution • Job displacement • Loss of traditional skills
Figure 1.2: Positive and Negative Social Impacts of Technology

In Nepal, technology has reshaped daily life: mechanized agriculture in the Terai, the jump from postal mail to 4G mobile and Facebook in rural areas, Total Station/GPS for infrastructure, telemedicine and COVID-era online learning. The same wave brought rapid urbanization, e-waste, erosion of traditional craft skills and heavy import dependence.

Opportunity vs Conflict

Technology simultaneously creates opportunity (new industries such as e-commerce — Daraz, eSewa, Khalti; social mobility; e-governance) and conflict (disruption of traditional artisans, privacy loss). This dual nature is the “conflict of technology”.

Shift in Employment

As technology advances, employment migrates across sectors:

Agricultural Industrial Service Knowledge / Information
Figure 1.3: Technology-Driven Shift in Employment

Emerging trends include the gig economy and AI displacement of white-collar work; in Nepal this appears as rural-to-urban migration and large-scale foreign employment.

Technology Controls Commodity Prices

Technology can lower and stabilize prices through production efficiency, cheaper transport, elimination of middlemen, market-price information systems, cold storage (which cuts 30–40% post-harvest loss in Nepal) and renewable energy that stabilizes energy costs.

Technology is Irreversible

Once a technology is adopted, society cannot revert — it “modifies society in an irreversible and irreparable way.” Technology breeds technology: each innovation enables and demands the next, and the system continually upgrades itself. We cannot un-invent the mobile phone or the internet.

Information Society

In the information society, knowledge and data — not capital — are the primary resource. Marshall McLuhan's “global village” describes a world linked instantly by computers and networks. The knowledge theory of value replaces Marx's labour theory of value: wealth flows to those who create and control information.

1.3 ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY; ROLE AND IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY 2079 2078 2074 2073 2072 2070

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS (mapped from TES):

  1. Discuss the impact of technology on environment and society. [6] (2078 Chaitra, Q1)
  2. How does technological advancement place impact on environment and society? [Part of 8] (2073 Bhadra, Q1)
  3. Discuss with suitable examples how development activities have impacts on environment and society. [8] (2079 Chaitra, Q4)
  4. Discuss the benefits of modern technology for the promotion of innovative research and its application in various fields. [4+4] (2079 Jestha, Q1)
  5. As a civil engineer how have you been benefited by technologies? [6] (2074 Magh, Q1)
  6. What are the primary reasons for human interventions in the ecosystem? [8] (2074 Bhadra, Q3)
  7. How are natural resources of the ecosystem converted into wealth? [8] (2072 Ashwin, Q3)
  8. Define ecosystem and ecology. How does increasing population disturb the natural ecosystem and how can the disturbance be minimized? [2+3] (2070 Bhadra, Q1)

Impact of Technology on Environment

Positive
  • Paperless communication
  • Smart sensors (auto on/off, efficiency)
  • Clean energy (solar, wind, hydro)
  • Better research & monitoring equipment
Negative
  • E-waste accumulation
  • Habitat loss from roads/dams
  • Population pressure from health tech
  • High power use (data centres)

Benefits of Modern Technology for Research & Civil Engineering

Research: high-speed computing and simulation, advanced instruments (electron microscopes, LiDAR, satellites), instant data sharing and AI/ML analysis accelerate innovation.

Civil engineering: Total Station / GPS / GNSS, drone photogrammetry and LiDAR for surveying; AutoCAD, SAP2000, ETABS, STAAD for design; GIS & remote sensing for planning; BIM for coordination; Primavera / MS Project for management; and Universal Testing Machines for material testing.

Education: online and distance learning, digital libraries, virtual labs, AI-personalized learning, accessibility tools and remote assessment.

Human Interventions in the Ecosystem

Ecology & Ecosystem
Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with the non-living (abiotic) environment as a system, operating on nutrient cycling, energy flow and structure.

Primary reasons for human intervention: population growth, economic development, energy needs, agricultural expansion, resource extraction, urbanization, technological advancement and rising consumption. These disturb nutrient cycling, energy flow and ecosystem structure.

Converting natural resources into wealth: through agriculture, energy generation, mining, forestry, water resources and tourism. Natural resources are the backbone of the national economy — but current depletion rates threaten future generations.

Minimizing disturbance: sustainable resource management, renewable energy, awareness programs, environmental policy, the 3 R's, afforestation and biodiversity protection.

1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION 2080 2079 2078 2077 2074 2073 2072 2071 2070 2069

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS (mapped from TES):

  1. Define environment and ecosystem. [Part of 8] (2073 Magh, Q3)
  2. Write notes on: Ecology and Ecosystem. [4] (2071 Magh, Q6c)
  3. Define regional and global environmental issues, and discuss briefly the factors contributing to global warming. [4] (2079 Chaitra, Q3b)
  4. Discuss briefly the global environmental issues and their driving forces. [4] (2077 Chaitra, Q3b)
  5. List out the major environmental issues of Nepal. [3] (2070 Bhadra, Q1)
  6. What are the major environmental issues in Nepal? Discuss along with the causes and mitigation measures. [8] (2074 Magh, Q4)
  7. List out the key environmental issues people face in the Kathmandu valley and discuss the pressing factors. [1+3] (2080 Chaitra, Q4b)
  8. Describe the importance of national parks, conservation areas and forestation programs in Nepal as a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emission. [6] (2071 Magh, Q5)
  9. Write short notes on: National Park and its importance. [4] (2078 Kartik, Q5b)
  10. Write short notes on: Deforestation and its consequences. [4] (2077 Chaitra, Q5c)

1.4.1 Ecosystem and Conservation of Environment

Environment (ISO 14001)
The surroundings in which an organization operates, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans and their inter-relationships.

Components: hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and anthrosphere. Environmental factors are biotic (producers, consumers, decomposers) and abiotic (climatic and edaphic).

Ecosystem characteristics: dynamic, self-regulating (homeostasis) and interdependent (holocoenotic). It runs on three principles — nutrient cycling, energy flow and structure.

IN-SITU (on site) • National parks • Wildlife reserves • Conservation areas • Community forests / buffer zones • Watershed management EX-SITU (off site) • Botanical gardens • Zoos • Gene / seed banks • Captive breeding • Tissue culture
Figure 1.4: Two Approaches to Conservation — In-situ and Ex-situ

1.4.2 Conservation of Natural Resources and Wildlife in Infrastructure Development

Roads, dams, transmission lines and urban expansion fragment habitat and disturb wildlife corridors. Responsible infrastructure development must therefore integrate conservation from the planning stage.

  • Impact on natural resources: habitat loss, forest clearance, altered river hydrology, soil erosion.
  • Significance: biodiversity protects ecosystem services (water, soil fertility, pollination, tourism value).
  • Ecology & behaviour: understanding animal movement and breeding informs wildlife crossings, underpasses and no-build zones.
  • Conservation measures: EIA/IEE, wildlife corridors and crossings, buffer-zone management, afforestation and community participation.

Nepal’s protected-area network covers about 23.39% of the land (34,419 km²) — roughly 12 national parks, 6 conservation areas and several wildlife reserves. Chitwan National Park (est. 1973) protects the one-horned rhino; Bardiya hosts the Bengal tiger; Langtang shelters the red panda. Community forestry lifted forest cover from 29% (1994) to 40.36% (2015), storing an estimated 1.054 billion tons of carbon.

Deforestation — consequences: soil erosion and landslides, loss of biodiversity, disrupted water cycle, increased CO2 and greenhouse effect, and loss of livelihoods.

1.4.3 Global and Regional Environmental Issues

Global IssuesRegional / Nepal Issues
Global warming & climate change; ozone depletion; biodiversity loss; ocean acidification; resource depletion; overpopulation. Kathmandu Valley air & water pollution; Terai deforestation and arsenic in groundwater; illegal sand/stone mining; poaching; glacier melt & GLOFs.

Kathmandu Valley pressing factors: vehicular and industrial emissions (brick kilns), untreated sewage in the Bagmati, haphazard urbanization, a solid-waste crisis and population pressure — all trapped by the valley’s bowl-shaped topography. Nationally, water-borne disease remains serious: diarrheal illness caused an estimated 7,882 deaths (4.83% of all deaths, WHO 2017).

1.5 RESOURCE EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGIES 2079 2078 2077 2075 2074 2073 2071

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS (mapped from TES):

  1. What are the renewable and non-renewable energy resources? [3] (2079 Jestha, Q4)
  2. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable energy. [5] (2071 Bhadra, Q6)
  3. Define appropriate technology with suitable examples. [2] (2077 Chaitra, Q1)
  4. What are appropriate technologies? How are they useful in least developed countries like Nepal? Justify with suitable examples. [8] (2075 Bhadra, Q2)
  5. What are the elements of sustainable development? How can you say indigenous technologies are sustainable in the case of Nepal? [8] (2073 Magh, Q1)
  6. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of labour-based and labour-intensive development approaches with suitable examples. [8] (2079 Chaitra, Q2)
  7. Discuss how bio-gas and organic farming help minimize climate change. [8] (2079 Shrawan, Q5)
  8. Write short notes on: Bio-gas and its suitability in the Terai region of Nepal. [4] (2077 Chaitra, Q5a)

1.5.1 Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

BasisRenewableNon-Renewable
AvailabilityReproduced quickly, not depletedFinite, exhaustible
ExamplesSolar, hydro, wind, geothermal, biomass/bio-fuelCoal, petroleum, natural gas, minerals
EnvironmentClean, low emissionsPolluting, high emissions
Share of world energy~15–20%~80%
Formation timeContinuous / shortThousands–millions of years

Resources can also be graded as perpetual (solar, wind), renewable (forests, fisheries) and non-renewable (coal, oil, gas, minerals).

Appropriate & Indigenous Technology

Appropriate Technology
Small-scale, decentralized, labour-intensive, energy-efficient, environmentally sound and locally controlled technology — suited to the resources and needs of a community. Championed by Dr. E.F. Schumacher (“health, beauty, permanence”).
Appropriate Technology Small-scale Labour-intensive Decentralized Energy-efficient Renewable Locally controlled
Figure 1.5: Key Properties of Appropriate Technology

Nepal examples: Improved Cooking Stoves (ICS), rope pumps, biogas plants, gabion walls and micro-hydro (5–100 kW). Indigenous sustainable technologies include Rajkulo (gravity canals), Newari mud-and-stone houses, Dhiki/Janto and water mills, and terraced farming — all low-carbon, locally maintained and time-tested.

Elements of sustainable development: economic viability, environmental protection, social equity and a supporting institutional framework.

Labour-based vs labour-intensive vs intermediate technology: labour-based combines labour with light equipment; labour-intensive is mostly manual with a high labour-to-capital ratio; intermediate technology uses locally available resources and simple tools, keeping people at the centre.

1.5.2 Waste Management and Recycling Technologies

Sustainable waste management follows the waste hierarchy — prevention first, disposal last.

REDUCE REUSE RECYCLE RECOVER (energy) DISPOSE (landfill) Most Least preferred
Figure 1.6: The Waste Hierarchy (5 R’s)

Technologies include composting and biogas for organics, materials recovery facilities (MRFs) for plastics/metals/paper, effluent and common effluent treatment plants (ETP/CETP) for industry, and Eco-Sanitation (ECOSAN) which recycles human excreta into fertilizer, closing the N-P-K nutrient loop. Nepal’s Solid Waste Management Act (2011) makes municipalities responsible for collection and disposal.

1.5.3 Green Engineering and Design Practices

Green engineering designs products and processes that minimize pollution and resource use across the whole life cycle. Core principles: prevent waste at source, maximize resource and energy efficiency, use renewable inputs, design for durability and recyclability, and use life-cycle thinking (“cradle to cradle”).

  • Biogas: CH4 (50–70%) + CO2; introduced in Nepal in 1974/75; 400,000+ plants installed. Ideal for the warm Terai (digestion 20–35°C); it replaces fuelwood, captures methane (25× the warming potency of CO2) and yields organic slurry.
  • Organic farming: uses manure/compost instead of agrochemicals; cuts N2O emissions, improves soil carbon and reduces water/soil pollution.
  • Green buildings: passive solar design, natural ventilation, rainwater harvesting, energy-efficient materials.

1.6 NATURAL RESOURCES SAFEGUARDS: PRINCIPLE AND PRACTICES 2081 2079 2078 2074 2072

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS (mapped from TES):

  1. Define conflict of resources and optimum use of natural resources with examples. [4] (2081 Chaitra, Q3b)
  2. What do you understand by optimum utilization of natural resources for environmental conservation? [3] (2079 Jestha, Q4)
  3. Describe conflict of resources with suitable examples. [4] (2078 Chaitra, Q3b)
  4. How natural resources of the ecosystem are converted into wealth? [8] (2072 Ashwin, Q3)
  5. How can we protect our national parks and conservation areas? [Part of 8] (2074 Bhadra, Q4)

Principle: Optimum Utilization

Optimum Utilization of Natural Resources
Allocating and using natural resources so as to make the best use of the environment in satisfying human needs at minimum cost, on a sustainable basis — meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.

Objectives: sustainable management and conservation; restoration of ecological balance (trees and grasses); rural employment creation; reducing non-renewable use through alternatives; and pollution control through policy.

Conflict of Resources

Conflict of Resources
A situation in which the allocation or use of natural resources leads to violence, rights abuses or denial of access. Roughly 40% of inter-country conflicts are linked to resource ownership.

Causes: rapid population growth, social inequality and skewed access, governance failure, unsustainable consumption and economic globalization.

Nepal examples: land disputes (boundary, tenancy, right-of-way), forest conflicts (ownership, access, illegal collection, poaching, medicinal-plant extraction) and water conflicts (source disputes, drinking-vs-irrigation sharing, project-damage compensation). Globally, “blood diamonds” in Africa and gold in Indonesia illustrate resource-driven conflict.

Practices: Safeguarding Natural Resources

  • Strengthen the legal framework and enforcement.
  • Community and participatory management with buffer zones.
  • Sustainable ecotourism that funds conservation.
  • Anti-poaching enforcement (drones, camera traps).
  • Education and public awareness.
  • International funding — Green Climate Fund (GCF), REDD+.
  • Research and monitoring.
  • Apply the 3 R’s and reduce ecological, carbon and water footprints.
Nepal instruments: Environment Protection Act (1996/2019) & Rules with mandatory EIA/IEE, Water Resources Act (1992), Forest Act and community forestry, and a low-carbon development strategy aligned with the Clean Development Mechanism.

QUICK REFERENCE: KEY FACTS & NEPAL DATA

  • Ages of civilization: Stone → Bronze → Iron → Middle → Modern.
  • Resource shift: Agricultural (land/labour) → Industrial (capital/machinery) → Information (knowledge/data).
  • Forest cover: 29% (1994) → 40.36% (2015); ~1.054 billion tons carbon stored.
  • Protected areas: ~23.39% of land (34,419 km²); Chitwan NP est. 1973.
  • Biogas: 400,000+ plants; CH4 50–70%; introduced 1974/75.
  • Renewable share: ~15–20% of world energy; non-renewable ~80%.
  • Waste hierarchy: Reduce → Reuse → Recycle → Recover → Dispose.
  • Key laws: Environment Protection Act 1996/2019 (EIA/IEE); Solid Waste Management Act 2011.

PAST QUESTION FREQUENCY SUMMARY

TopicFrequencyTypical Marks
Environmental issues of Nepal (1.4)★★★★★ Very High3–8
Appropriate / indigenous technology (1.5)★★★★★ Very High2–8
Impact of technology on society (1.2)★★★★ High4–8
Industrial revolution & ages (1.1)★★★★ High2–8
Conflict / optimum use of resources (1.6)★★★ Medium3–4
Renewable vs non-renewable (1.5.1)★★★ Medium3–5
Ecosystem & conservation (1.4.1)★★★ Medium2–4
Exam Tip: Chapter 1 carries the largest environment component (12 marks). Nepal-specific answers score best — always cite local data (forest cover, biogas plants, protected areas, Kathmandu Valley factors). For “appropriate technology” questions, give at least three Nepali examples.

My Mnemonics