Technology

1.1 Definition of Technology 208120802079207820742072

Definition 1: Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes.

Definition 2: Technology is the branch of knowledge that deals with the formation and use of technical resources and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment.

Environment: The totality of all external conditions affecting the life, development and survival of an organism — physical, chemical, and biological surroundings (air, water, land, flora, fauna, and their interrelationships).

Society: A group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, sharing the same geographical or social territory, and subject to the same political authority and cultural expectations — a community of people living together in ordered relationships.

Note: For the justification of “Technology is Irreversible,” see Section 1.10.

• In simple terms: Technology is the practical use of knowledge to create tools and methods that make human life easier, more productive, and more comfortable.
• Key point: Technology is not just machines — it includes processes, knowledge, skills, and organizational methods.

1.1.1 Characteristics of Technology 2080

1. Knowledge Based: Technology is rooted in scientific knowledge and research. Every technological product is the result of organized knowledge applied to solve a problem. Example: The design of earthquake-resistant buildings is based on structural engineering knowledge.
2. Driven by Consumer Demand: Technology evolves in response to the needs and demands of society. Example: The demand for faster communication led to the invention of smartphones and 5G networks.
3. Evident in All Cultures: Every civilization, from primitive to modern, has developed some form of technology suited to its environment. Example: Indigenous Nepali communities developed water-powered grain mills (Ghatta/Dhiki) centuries ago.
4. Fundamental to Survival: Technology is essential for human survival — from clothing and shelter to food production and medicine. Example: Irrigation technology is fundamental to feeding the world's population.
5. Accumulative (Cumulative): Technology builds upon itself — each invention forms the foundation for the next. Example: The invention of the transistor led to integrated circuits, then microprocessors, then modern computers.
6. Extends Our Capabilities: Technology enables humans to do things beyond their natural physical or mental capacity. Example: Cranes extend our lifting ability; calculators extend our computational ability.
7. Inevitable: Technological change cannot be stopped — it continuously evolves. What is advanced today becomes obsolete tomorrow. Example: Film cameras replaced by digital cameras, then by smartphone cameras.
8. Irreversible: Once a technology is introduced and adopted, society cannot easily go back to the pre-technology state. Example: After the introduction of mobile phones, society is permanently dependent on them for communication.

1.1.2 Technology as the Foundation of Civilization 2072

Technology is rightly called the foundation of civilization because the progress of human society has been directly linked to technological advancements at every stage:

• Stone Age: The invention of stone tools and fire enabled early humans to hunt, cook, and survive harsh environments, forming the first communities.
• Agricultural Revolution (~10,000 BC): The development of ploughs, irrigation systems, and crop cultivation techniques transformed nomadic tribes into settled civilizations (Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, etc.).
• Industrial Revolution (18th–19th century): The steam engine, mechanized looms, and railways revolutionized production and transportation, creating the modern urban civilization.
• Information Age (20th–21st century): Computers, the internet, and telecommunications have created a globally connected civilization.

Without technology, civilization as we know it — with organized agriculture, cities, infrastructure, governance, and communication — would not exist.

1.2 Impact of Technology on Environment & Society 2079207820732072207120702069

1.2.1 Positive Impacts on Society 207920782073207220712070

• Improved Communication: Mobile phones and the internet have connected people globally, enabling instant information exchange.
• Better Healthcare: Advanced medical equipment (MRI, ventilators, vaccines) has significantly increased life expectancy and reduced mortality.
• Enhanced Education: E-learning platforms, digital libraries, and online courses have made education accessible even in remote areas.
• Increased Productivity: Mechanization in agriculture and industry has dramatically increased output and reduced manual labor.
• Improved Transportation: Roads, railways, airways, and electric vehicles have made movement faster, safer, and more efficient.

1.2.2 Negative Impacts on Society 2079207820732070

• Loss of Concentration: Excessive screen time and constant notifications reduce attention spans.
• Social Isolation: People spend more time on devices and less in face-to-face interaction.
• Threat to Human Health: Radiation, sedentary lifestyles, and eye strain are health risks from overuse of technology.
• Lack of Privacy: Personal data collection by companies and surveillance technologies invade privacy.
• Addiction: Internet, social media, and gaming addiction are growing social problems.

1.2.3 Positive Impacts on Environment 207920782073

• Paperless Communication: Emails, online billing, and digital records reduce paper consumption and deforestation.
• Sensor Technologies: Automatic light/AC on-off systems reduce unnecessary energy consumption.
• Eco-Friendly Energy: Solar panels, wind turbines, and hydropower provide clean renewable energy.
• Improved Research Equipment: Advanced instruments enable development of eco-friendly technologies.

1.2.4 Negative Impacts on Environment 207920782073

• Generation of More Waste: E-waste from discarded electronic devices pollutes soil and water.
• Disrupting Ecology: Infrastructure development (roads, dams) destroys natural habitats and ecosystems.
• Increased Population: Improved health technology has increased population, putting pressure on resources and environment.
• Excess Power Consumption: The growing number of electronic devices and data centers consume enormous amounts of electricity.

1.2.5 Impact Summary Table

Positive & Negative Impacts on Society:

Positive & Negative Impacts on Environment:

1.2.6 Impact on Nepalese Society 2069

• Agriculture: have gradually been supplemented by mechanized tools (tractors, threshers) and improved seeds, increasing crop yields in the Terai region.
• Communication: Nepal transitioned from postal systems to landlines, then to mobile phones and 4G internet. Social media platforms like Facebook have become widely used even in rural areas.
• Infrastructure: Modern surveying instruments (Total Station, GPS) and construction equipment have accelerated road and hydropower development.
• Health: Telemedicine services and improved diagnostic equipment have expanded healthcare access, though disparities remain between urban and rural Nepal.
• Education: Online learning platforms became essential during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, though internet access remains a challenge in remote districts.
• Challenges: Rapid urbanization, e-waste accumulation, loss of traditional craft skills, and increasing dependence on imported technology remain concerns.

1.3 Benefits of Technology Due to New Inventions 207920742072

1.3.1 Benefits of Modern Technology in Research 2079

• High-Speed Computing: Supercomputers and cloud computing allow massive simulations (climate modeling, structural analysis, genome sequencing) that were previously impossible.
• Advanced Instruments: Electron microscopes, satellite sensors, and LiDAR enable researchers to observe phenomena at scales from nanometers to global extents.
• Data Sharing & Collaboration: The internet and open-access journals allow researchers worldwide to share findings instantly, accelerating the pace of discovery.
• AI & Machine Learning: AI algorithms can analyze massive datasets to identify patterns, predict outcomes, and automate tedious research processes.

1.3.2 Application in Various Fields 2079

• Civil Engineering: BIM (Building Information Modeling), drone surveying, and 3D printing of structural components have revolutionized design and construction.
• Medicine: MRI, CT scans, robotic surgery, and mRNA vaccine technology (COVID-19) have saved millions of lives.
• Agriculture: Precision farming using GPS-guided tractors, soil sensors, and satellite imagery optimizes water and fertilizer usage.
• Energy: Solar panel efficiency has improved dramatically, and battery technology enables large-scale renewable energy storage.

1.3.3 Benefits of Technology in Education 2072

1. Online & Distance Learning: Platforms like Google Classroom, Zoom, and Coursera enable learning from anywhere, anytime — critical during the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. Digital Libraries & Open Resources: Students can access millions of textbooks, research papers, and video tutorials through the internet for free or at low cost.
3. Interactive Learning: Simulations, virtual labs, and augmented reality make abstract concepts tangible. Engineering students can simulate structural loading without building physical models.
4. Personalized Learning: AI-based adaptive learning systems adjust difficulty levels based on a student's performance, ensuring no one is left behind.
5. Accessibility: Screen readers, speech-to-text, and translation tools make education accessible to students with disabilities and language barriers.
6. Remote Assessment: Online examinations and automated grading systems streamline evaluation, though maintaining academic integrity remains a challenge.

1.3.4 Benefits of Technology for Civil Engineering 2074

• Survey & Mapping: Total Station, GPS/GNSS, drone photogrammetry, and LiDAR have replaced traditional chain surveys, providing higher accuracy in far less time.
• Design & Analysis: Software like AutoCAD, SAP2000, ETABS, and STAAD Pro enables complex structural analysis and design optimization that would be impractical by hand.
• GIS & Remote Sensing: GIS tools help in site selection, flood plain mapping, route optimization, and environmental impact assessment.
• Construction Management: Project management software (MS Project, Primavera) helps schedule, track, and optimize construction timelines and costs.
• BIM (Building Information Modeling): 3D digital models of buildings integrate architectural, structural, MEP, and cost data into a single coordinated model, reducing errors and rework.
• Material Testing: Advanced lab equipment (UTM, concrete compression machines, soil testing instruments) provides precise data for quality control.

1.4 Conflict of Technology & Technology Creates Opportunity for Society to Change 2077

Technology acts as a catalyst for societal transformation by creating new opportunities while simultaneously disrupting existing structures:

• Economic Opportunity: The internet has created entirely new industries — e-commerce, app development, digital marketing, and freelancing platforms that provide employment to millions globally. In Nepal, platforms like Daraz, eSewa, and Khalti have created new economic ecosystems.
• Social Mobility: Technology allows talented individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds to access education and opportunities previously reserved for the elite. Free online courses from MIT, Harvard, and Khan Academy democratize knowledge.
• Agricultural Transformation: Improved seeds, mechanization, and weather forecasting technology help subsistence farmers increase yields, generating surplus for commercial sale.
• Governance & Transparency: E-governance initiatives (online land registration, digital citizenship, online tender systems) reduce corruption and increase efficiency.
• The Conflict: However, technology also causes disruption — traditional artisans lose markets to factory-made goods, small shops are displaced by online retailers, and privacy is compromised. This tension between opportunity and disruption is the fundamental "conflict of technology."

1.5 Appropriate Technology 207920772075207420732071

Definition: Appropriate technology is a small and local level technology whose primary goal is to make use of local level skills and manpower to provide basic human needs and services. It is an approach that promotes small-scale, decentralized, energy-efficient, locally controlled and environmentally sound technology that attempts to solve basic human problems.

Dr. Ernst Friedrich described it as the technology which should be able to promote health, beauty, and permanence. Ideologies of Mahatma Gandhi and Mao Zedong advocated small, local and predominantly village-based technology to help local villages become self-reliant.

Properties of Appropriate Technology:

1. Small scale and simple
2. Decentralization of goods, products and services
3. Labour intensive
4. Energy efficient
5. Self-sustaining
6. Emphasizes use of renewable resources
7. Environmentally sound
8. Locally controlled

Examples:

• Improved Cooking Stoves (ICS): Use less firewood and produce less indoor smoke compared to traditional open fires — suitable for rural Nepal.
• Rope Pumps for Water: Simple, locally manufactured hand pumps for groundwater extraction in villages where electric pumps are unaffordable.
• Biogas Plants: Convert animal dung into cooking gas and organic fertilizer — widely used in Nepal's rural areas.
• Gabion Walls: Wire-mesh boxes filled with locally available stones for slope stabilization, cheaper than concrete retaining walls.
• Micro-Hydropower: Small-scale hydroelectric systems (5–100 kW) providing electricity to remote hill communities not connected to the national grid.

Definition: Appropriate technologies are those designed with consideration to local environmental, cultural, economic, and social aspects. They are affordable, simple to operate and maintain, and use locally available resources and skills.

1.5.1 Why Appropriate Technology is Relevant to LDCs like Nepal 20752071

1. Affordability: Nepal has limited capital for expensive, high-tech solutions. Appropriate technologies like biogas plants, solar home systems, and ICS require low investment.
2. Local Employment: These technologies are labor-intensive rather than capital-intensive, generating local jobs (e.g., construction of suspension bridges using local labor).
3. Self-Reliance: They use locally available materials and skills, reducing dependence on imports and foreign expertise.
4. Environmental Sustainability: Technologies like micro-hydro and biogas use renewable resources and produce minimal pollution.
5. Social Acceptability: Because they are designed for local conditions, communities adopt them more readily than foreign "high-tech" alternatives.
6. Terrain Suitability: Nepal's rugged Himalayan terrain makes large-scale infrastructure difficult. Small-scale appropriate technologies (rope-way cargo transport, trail bridges) are far more practical.

1.5.2 Elements of Sustainable Development 20742073

1. Economic Viability: Development must generate income and improve livelihoods without excessive cost.
2. Environmental Protection: Natural resources must be used at a rate that allows regeneration; pollution must be minimized.
3. Social Equity: Benefits must be distributed fairly across all sections of society, including marginalized communities.
4. Institutional Framework: Good governance, transparent policies, and community participation are essential.

1.5.3 Indigenous Technology as Sustainable in Nepal 20742073

• Traditional Irrigation (Rajkulo): Gravity-fed canal systems built with local stone and labor — no energy cost, minimal maintenance, and centuries of proven effectiveness in hill farming.
• Mud-and-Stone Construction: Traditional Newari houses use locally quarried brick, mud mortar, and timber — thermally comfortable, low-carbon, and earthquake-adaptable through flexible timber frames.
• Dhiki & Janto (grain grinding): Traditional water-powered grain mills require zero fossil fuel, use local craftsmanship, and are still operational in many villages.
• Terraced Farming: An indigenous land management technology that prevents soil erosion on steep slopes while maximizing cultivable area in the hills.

These technologies satisfy all three pillars of sustainability — they are economically viable (low cost), environmentally sound (zero carbon, local materials), and socially equitable (accessible to all).

1.5.4 Role of Appropriate Technology in Transforming Society 2079

Appropriate technology transforms societies by addressing fundamental needs with locally viable solutions:

1. Health Transformation: Biogas plants in rural Nepal eliminated indoor smoke from traditional stoves — reducing acute respiratory infections (ARI) by 40–50% in households that switched, especially for women and children.
2. Energy Access & Economic Activity: Micro-hydro plants in remote hill districts (e.g., Myagdi, Baglung) brought electricity to communities for the first time — enabling night-time study, mobile phone charging, and small-scale enterprises (grain mills, saw mills).
3. Women’s Empowerment: Before biogas, women spent 3–4 hours daily collecting firewood. Appropriate technology freed this time for education, income generation, and community participation.
4. Agricultural Productivity: Drip irrigation and improved seed varieties enabled year-round vegetable farming in the Terai — transforming subsistence farmers into commercial producers.
5. Education Access: Solar-powered community learning centers in off-grid areas (e.g., Humla, Dolpa) enabled digital literacy and distance education where no grid electricity existed.
6. Sanitation & Disease Reduction: VIP latrines and eco-sanitation toilets transformed open-defecation communities into ODF (Open Defecation Free) villages, reducing diarrheal diseases by 30–40%.

The key principle: AT doesn’t just solve technical problems — it restructures social relationships, economic opportunities, and health outcomes. Each technology listed above created a before/after transformation in community life.

1.6 Intermediate Technology, Labor Based & Labor Intensive Technology 20792078

• Intermediate Technology: Technology suitable for use in developing countries, typically making use of locally available resources. Designed to focus on people rather than machines, it is more harmonious with the environment and traditional ways of life. Examples: Solar powered bulbs, hand weaving machines, pedal power maize sheller.
• Labor-Based Technology: It is the technology that combines labour with light equipment and tools as necessary, rather than sophisticated machinery, to create cost-effective products. Local labour is preferred wherever applicable, and the quality must meet required standards.
  Example: Road construction using manual labor for earthwork but using a small roller for final surface compaction.
• Labor-Intensive Technology: It involves a large number of workers to produce products or services. There is high labour cost relative to capital and involves physical and manual jobs. In simple words, it uses comparatively larger amount of labour and small doses of capital.
  Example: Hand-excavation of irrigation canals in rural Nepal where heavy excavators are inaccessible.

1.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 2079

Labour-Based Technology:

Labour-Intensive Technology:

1.7 Shifts in Employment Due to Technological Advancement 20732069

Technological advancement fundamentally restructures the employment landscape by eliminating some jobs, transforming others, and creating entirely new categories of work:

1. Agricultural to Industrial Shift: The mechanization of agriculture (tractors, harvesters, irrigation pumps) dramatically reduced the need for farm labor. Displaced agricultural workers migrated to cities and were absorbed by factories during the Industrial Revolution.
2. Industrial to Service Shift: Automation in manufacturing (robots, CNC machines, assembly lines) reduced factory employment. Workers shifted to the service sector — finance, healthcare, education, IT, and retail.
3. Service to Knowledge/Information Shift: Computer technology and the internet created a new category of "knowledge workers" — software engineers, data analysts, digital marketers, and IT professionals. Manual clerical and administrative jobs were automated by software.
4. Emerging Trends:
   • Gig Economy: Platforms like Uber, Upwork, and Fiverr enable freelance and contract work, replacing traditional full-time employment.
   • AI Displacement: Artificial intelligence is now automating even intellectual tasks — legal research, medical diagnostics, financial analysis — threatening white-collar employment.
   • New Roles Created: Every technology wave creates new job categories — drone operators, cybersecurity experts, renewable energy technicians, data scientists.
5. Nepal Context: Nepal has seen rural-to-urban migration as agricultural technology reduces farm labor needs. IT and BPO sectors are emerging as new employers. Foreign employment (Gulf countries, Malaysia) is partly driven by mechanization of local agriculture reducing rural livelihood options.

1.8 Role of Technology to Unmask Old Social Problems & Society's Control of Technology 207620752069

Technology is the systematic application of organized knowledge and tools so that a human or a society can adjust to their environment. Different technologies have been invented to meet society's demands. The use of these technologies has helped in revealing and reducing different social problems:

1. Communication & Information: The development of internet and mobile phones over the post office system has made information flow among the general public quick and easy. Huge amounts of data can be stored in a small chip. This has unmasked problems of misinformation and lack of awareness.
2. Transportation: The evolution of cars, trains, and planes over wheeled carts has solved accessibility problems. Digital technology in highway traffic management and ropeways in tough geography (like Nepal's hills) have revealed how isolation was a root cause of underdevelopment.
3. Civil Engineering Problems: Software like CAD, SAP has provided accurate and reliable design over old methods. Excavators, cranes, and dozers have replaced manual labor in road engineering. GPS, GIS, Total Station have replaced plane table and compass surveys — revealing inaccuracies in old surveys.
4. Health & Education: Treatment machines have solved public health problems. Projectors and digital tools have replaced blackboards and chalks. Infant mortality rates have been drastically reduced, unmasking the scale of preventable deaths that existed before.
5. Social Crimes: Theft, robbery, and murders have been greatly reduced with advanced surveillance and security technologies. Media like television, newspapers, and internet share social problems that were previously hidden.
6. Banking & Finance: Computers keep records of transactions instead of papers. ATMs, internet banking, and remittance services have solved financial access problems, especially for rural and migrant populations.

Society's Control of Technology: Technology and its evolution is controlled by society's needs and demands. Society controls technology due to: (1) Economy, (2) Education, (3) Resources/Infrastructures, and (4) Environment.

1.8.1 Technology Controlling the Price of Basic Commodities 20752069

Technology helps control prices through multiple mechanisms across the supply chain:

• Increased Production Efficiency: Mechanized farming, improved seed varieties, and precision agriculture increase crop yields, boosting supply and reducing per-unit costs.
• Reduced Transportation Costs: Better roads, fuel-efficient vehicles, refrigerated transport, and GPS-optimized logistics reduce the cost of moving goods from producer to consumer.
• Elimination of Middlemen: E-commerce platforms and mobile apps connect farmers directly to consumers, removing layers of intermediaries who inflate prices.
• Market Information Systems: Mobile phones and internet-based market price information systems allow farmers and consumers to compare prices, preventing exploitation by traders.
• Cold Storage & Preservation: Refrigeration and food processing technologies reduce post-harvest losses (which can be 30–40% in Nepal), maintaining supply levels during off-seasons.
• Renewable Energy: Solar and hydropower reduce dependency on imported fossil fuels, stabilizing energy costs which directly affect the price of manufactured goods.

1.10 Technology Is Irreversible 20812078

Once a technology is introduced and adopted by society, it becomes practically impossible to return to the pre-technology state. As stated in the syllabus: "Technological advancement does not occur in isolation. It modifies society in irreversible and irreparable way."

• Technology Breeds Technology: Every invention leads to further inventions. The wheel led to carts, then to automobiles, then to self-driving cars. Each advancement triggers the next — there is no going back.
• Technology Always Upgrades Itself: Newer technology replaces old technology. Computing power of phones has grown exponentially while prices remain similar, making technology more affordable and widespread.
• Improvement in Productivity: Technology improves productivity and output. Industries, banking systems, communication methods, and purchasing methods have all changed for the better — no one wants to return to the old, slower ways.
• Life Enhancement: Technology unlocks life that was unimaginable. We now have more than 12 hours of visible light (unlike life before electric lights). Modern medicine, faster travel, and digital banking have permanently changed daily life.
• New Technology for New Age Problems: Technology is needed because it saves time, is more efficient, is economical, and enhances life. Problems created by old technology require newer technology to solve — not a return to primitive methods.

"Technology has helped humankind reach unremarkable heights. Once underway, its progress is inevitable, unavoidable, and irreversible."

1.10.1 Definitions: Technology, Environment, and Society 2081

Technology: Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. It is the branch of knowledge that deals with the formation and use of technical resources and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment.

Environment: Environment is the totality of all the external conditions affecting the life, development and survival of an organism. It includes the physical, chemical, and biological surroundings — air, water, land, flora, fauna, and their interrelationships.

Society: Society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, sharing the same geographical or social territory, and typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. It is a community of people living together in ordered relationships.

1.11 Agricultural Age, Industrial Age and Information Age 207620702069

Industrial Revolution: The transition from hand production methods to machine manufacturing that originated in Britain around 1760–1840. It was characterized by the development of the steam engine, mechanized textile production, iron and steel manufacturing, and the factory system — fundamentally transforming economies from agrarian to industrial and triggering massive urbanization.

Information Society is a society where the creation, distribution, and manipulation of information is the most significant economic, political, and cultural activity. The primary wealth-generating resource is knowledge and data rather than land (agricultural) or machinery (industrial).

Key Differences:

• In an agricultural society, wealth is measured by land ownership, and power is held by landlords and monarchs.
• In an industrial society, wealth is measured by capital and factory ownership, and power shifts to industrialists and corporations.
• In an information society, wealth is measured by knowledge, data, and intellectual property, and power is held by those who control information flow (tech companies, media, governments with surveillance capability).

The transition from agricultural → industrial → information society represents a fundamental shift in what is the most valued resource at each stage of civilization.

1.12 Characteristics of Information Society 2073207220712070

Definition: Information society means social and economic structures where productive usage of resources such as information and knowledge-intensive production perform a prominent role, and where individuals (consumers, workers) use information extensively (OECD, 1994). The aim of information society is to gain competitive advantage internationally through using Information Technology (IT) in a creative and productive way.

Characteristics of Information Society:

1. Information as an Economic Resource: Information is used as an economic resource. Organizations make greater use of information to increase their efficiency and competitiveness.
2. Greater Use Among General Public: It is possible to identify greater use of information among the general public for daily activities.
3. Development of Information Sector: An information sector develops within the economy — including manufacturing, telecommunications, printing, mass media, advertising, accounting, education, finance, and insurance.
4. Focus on Better Education: Society places emphasis on education and continuous learning as the foundation for participating in the information economy.
5. Information as Wealth: Information is wealth — like capital was in the industrial society. The new source of power is not money in the hands of a few, but information in the hands of many.
6. Remote Communication: Telecommunication and internet allow instant communication across the globe.
7. Distribution of Global Information Networks: The internet and networks enable worldwide information sharing and collaboration.
8. Easy Access to Vast Information: Internet provides easy access to enormous amounts of information, though information cannot always be reliable.
9. Robots Doing Skilled and Unskilled Jobs: Automation replaces human labor in both skilled and unskilled tasks.
10. Knowledge Theory of Value: Marx's theory of labor value has been replaced by knowledge theory of value — intellectual contribution matters more than physical labor.
11. New Possibilities for Interaction: Technology creates new possibilities for public interaction and opinion expression (social media, forums, online platforms).

Challenges of Information Society:

• Information age is not absolute — not all parts of the world have equal access.
• Erosion in employment opportunities due to computers and robots.
• Challenge to make people computer literate.
• Challenge to control computer-related theft and fraud.
• Challenge to implement rules and regulations for information society.

1.12.1 Impact of Computers and Cybernetics on Creating Information Society 2070

• Computers made it possible to store, process, and transmit vast amounts of data at unprecedented speeds. This enabled electronic banking, e-commerce, digital communication, and online governance.
• Cybernetics (the science of control and communication in complex systems) enabled automated feedback loops — thermostats, autopilot systems, automated manufacturing, and algorithmic decision-making.
• The Internet (a product of both computer science and cybernetics) created a single global communication platform, enabling:
  • Instant messaging and video calls across continents
  • Real-time global news coverage
  • Global supply chain management
  • International collaboration in research (e.g., the CERN Large Hadron Collider project)
• Global Village Concept: Marshall McLuhan proposed that electronic communication would contract the world into a "village" where everyone is aware of and affected by events everywhere. Social media, 24/7 news channels, and instant messaging have made this a reality — a political event in the Middle East affects oil prices in Nepal within hours.

End of Chapter 1 – Technology

Quick-Revision Summary

Chapter 1 — Technology and Society — 42 past exam questions

Key Points to Remember

1. Technology = application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes
2. Appropriate technology: small-scale, labor-intensive, locally maintainable, affordable
3. Technology is irreversible — once adopted, it breeds further technology
4. Information society: knowledge replaces capital as primary resource
5. Nepal context: biogas, micro-hydro, Rajkulo, terraced farming as indigenous sustainable tech
6. LEP approach: Labor-based, Environment-friendly, Participatory